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From this passage, Yoke-elm would seem to be one of Gerard's many coinages; but the scientific name Carpinus has also been derived from the Keltic "car," wood, and "pen" or "pin," a head, though another suggestion is the Latin "carpentum," a chariot, the Swedish "karm," which closely approaches "charme," the French name for the tree. The wood, which is normally white, hard, tough, rather cross-grained, strong, light, and flexible, is also used for other agricultural implements, for the screws of presses, wooden cog-wheels, and tool-handles, and furnishes an excellent gunpowder charcoal. The modern German name for the tree, "Hainbuche," refers to another use to which Hornbeam has long been put. As it will stand a great amount of pruning, so long as it is not done in spring, when the tree is likely to suffer from the bleeding that results from the rising sap, it is a favorite tree for hedge-rows, known in French as "charmilles"; and since the dead leaves remain late on the branches, rustling crisply in the autumn gales, but resisting all the buffetings of the wind, it is largely used for this purpose in nurseries of seedling forest trees, and elsewhere where shelter is required, and used formerly to be employed in mazes and other geometrical devices. Evelyn ranks it foremost among deciduous trees for that purpose, reserving the claims of his favorite evergreen, the Holly :--"In the single row," he writes, "it makes the noblest and stateliest hedges for long walks in gardens or parks of any tree whatsoever whose leaves are deciduous." Flourishing, too, on soil too stiff for many kinds of trees, the Hornbeam is useful as a nurse to other species, and as cover for game. Deer will not touch it, but hares, rabbits, and especially field-mice, are very fond of its young leaf-shoots and foliage.
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Why Study Clay Mineralogy?
What is a clay? - Clay can mean many different things depending upon who is using the term.
In geology and soil classification, the term clay includes all particles that are <2 µm irrespective of their mineralogy (they could even be organic). This is strictly an operational definition, defined by the process of sedimentation as a means to separate particles. The clay fraction is thus the fraction that is smallest, most colloidal, and generally has the largest specific surface area. (Civil engineering also defines clay as a particle size, but using a different particle size than soil classifiers).
In mineralogy and soil chemistry, clay refers to a specific suite of minerals with layered structures. In greek, "phyllon" means leaf and "phyllo-" came to mean layered. When it was found that clay minerals are layered structures they were called phyllosilicates. This class will concern itself mostly with the study of phyllosilicate clay minerals, but we will also mention other minerals that are commonly found in the "clay" size fraction.
Are clay minerals important?
Estimates place clay minerals as comprising some 15% of the volume of the earth's crust. In soils, clays are generally the most important adsorbents for inorganic metals and often for organic solutes as well. This is because of their very high surface areas. Thus the presence and activities of clay minerals are critical to the plants on which we depend for primary production of our food.
With so many clays in the earth's crust, it is natural that we have found many other uses for them than their rather passive role in agriculture and forestry. Clay minerals are an important natural resource. According to the U.S. Geological Survey (http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/clays/), in 1998 there were about 770 active open-pit clay mines in 44 states of the U.S. These mines were operated by some 240 companies which employed some 13,700 people in clay mining and milling, and these companies sold 43.0 million metric tons of clay products for $2.14 billion. Michigan is a very modest clay producing state, producing about 725,000 metric tons of "common" clay for a market value of $3.82 million.
Later in this course we will discuss the scientific classification of the clays, but there is also a commercial classification system. In the clay industry, it is typical to divide mined clays into the following groups:
1. Ball clay: The principle markets and uses for "ball clay" are for making wall and floor tiles, "sanitaryware" which is ceramic plumbing fixtures like sinks and toilet bowls, pottery, and adsorbents. Prices average about $45 per ton, with a maximum near $210 for the highest-quality ball clays.
2. Bentonite: Bentonite is used (in decreasing order) as drilling mud for oil and gas exploration, to make foundry casts in metallurgical industries, as kitty litter, as a pelletizing ageent for iron ores, as filters and adsorbents, for waterproofing and sealing, as a thickening agent, and even as animal feeds. Prices average about $40 per ton, with the best grades bringing prices near $480.
3. Common clay: These are the clays used to make heavy items that do not require a particularly pure deposit, and these are the types that are mined in Michigan near Lake Erie. Common clays are used for construction bricks, portland cement and lightweight aggrgate for concrete, for drain tile, flue linings, and sewer pipe, and for terra cotta. Prices average about $6 per ton, with a maximum near $15.
4. Fire clay: Fire clays are those that are used primarily in refractory (heat tolerant or fire-resistant) applications, such as bricks, blocks, and mortar for fireplaces, incinerators, and power plants. Some fire clays are also used for pottery. Prices average about $18 per ton, with high-quality clays near $115.
5. Fuller's earth: This is the name given to a variety of attapulgite and montmorillonite clays that are similar to the bentonites and used for similar purposes. Thus, Fuller's earth is used as kitty litter ("pet waste adsorbents") oil and grease adsorbents and filters, pesticide and fertilizer carriers, and as flow control agents for animal feeds. More minor uses are as drilling muds, cements and adhesives, and pharmaceutical carriers. Prices average about $113 per ton, with prices for the best grades near $170.
6. Kaolin: Kaolinite is a white clay that has long been used to coat paper and make it smoother, bulkier, and whiter. Kaolin clays are also used for fire-resistant bricks, in fiberglass, in paints, in rubber tires, and to make catalysts. Prices average about $110 per ton, with the best pigment grades bringing $325 after processing.
The science of clay
Clay minerals are thus used for two broad functions, and intensively studied in order to understand and improve their usefulness for those functions:
On the one hand, clays have environmental applications since they are present in most of the worlds soils, sediments, waters, and even the air. Clays thereby capture the attention of agronomists and foresters who want to control nutrient uptake, soil tilth, fertility, and water relations. Civil and environmental engineers study clays because they influence the "plastic" properties of earth materials and are primary adsorbents that retard the mobilities of contaminants in the environment.
On the other hand, pure deposits can be dug up and shaped for many purposes in industry. Thus industrial chemists try to understand catalytic and adsorptive properties of the various clay minerals, their rheological properties as they apply to colloidal suspensions (paints, drilling muds), how to transport them and put them onto cellulose for paper, how to make better bricks and ceramics, and how they influence the behavior of nutrients and drugs when they are used for animal feed or pharmaceutical delivery. Those concerned with resource exploration try to understand clays as indicators of weathering or depositional environment and as controllers of oil reservoir quality.
Of course, clay minerals are fascinating in their own right and need have no purpose!
Anyone who studies clays has access to a myriad of scientific resources. There is a Clay Minerals Society whose whole purpose is to share the study of clays. Scientific journals that are almost wholly concerned with clay minerals include:
Clays and Clay Minerals
Clay Minerals
Applied Clay Science
Other journals that will often have papers focusing on clay minerals include:
Soil Science Society of America Journal
Langmuir
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
Environmental Science and Technology
Acta Crystallographica
Journal of American Chemical Society
Journal of Physical Chemistry
Journal of Colloid and Interface Science
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