Putting Limits on
the Diversity of Life
Fernando Castro-Chavez suggests that the working Principles are:
1. Life can only be originated from Life (based on the work of Louis Pasteur, founder of microbiology, against
"spontaneous generation", against "abiogenesis").
2. Organisms
can only originate similar organisms (based
on the work of Gregor Mendel, founder of genetics through his "Laws of
Heredity", against a random and unlimited variation between organisms).
The working Equations are:
1-) Genes + Environment = Restrained Variation
2-) P1 + P2 = F1 Fertile {If... Then,
corollary: P1 and P2 are varieties of the same Kind or Genos, no matter
how morphologically different they may appear. Example:
3-) P1 + P2 = F1 Sterile {If... Then,
corollary: P1 and P2 are members of a different Kind or Genos, no matter
how morphologically similar they may appear. Example: Horse and Ass}
Limiting first,
the classification of 'True Species' ('Kind') to organisms that can have
fertile offspring, some examples are provided.
Useful Link:
Research on Intelligent Design
fdocc at yahoo
dot com
Using the same principles illustrated on
"Adaptive Comparisons of Cave Animals": "closely related Mexican
cave fish and a widespread surface form are so similar that some scientists
think all may be subspecies of the same animal... [and that they] can
interbreed, and residents of some caves show all degrees of eye and pigment
degeneration", and the same can be said for the rest of varieties of
organisms presented there:
http://www.oocities.org/kubyimm3/adap1.htm
Intelligent Design to Generate Biodiversity, by
Fernando Castro-Chavez. Abstract: The classic work of Mendel on the precise
inheritance of characters demonstrated an Intelligent Design behind the Laws of
Heredity. Those Laws can be linked now to our modern knowledge of molecular
biology to provide a clearer account of the molecular basis and limits to
biological change as well as to generate biodiversity:
http://www.iscid.org/boards/ubb-get_topic-f-6-t-000553.html
HybriDatabase. An internet searchable database of published references to
interspecific hybridization records, started in 1996 by Ashley Robinson and
Todd Wood; the Center for Origins Research (CORE), at the Bryan College, hosts
and maintains this database, which contained nearly 5000 hybrid records in Jan
24 2005):
http://www.bryancore.org/hdb/index.html
The "HybriDatabase" was designed for
the study of "Baraminology" (two Hebrew words, bara and min , the
created kind of Genesis
Examples:
1-
Laupala, a group of forest-dwelling Hawaiian crickets: "acoustic variants
can interbreed and hybridize" http://www.life.umd.edu/biology/faculty/shaw
"Reproductive groups whose members are all more likely to interbreed with
one another than with any individuals outside said group. Thus acoustic
variation in Laupala is thought to be "species" specific" http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~w3bio422/BEN%20MACARZ.htm
More than 150 varieties from a single pair of genetic colonizers. to see a
plate from Otte's book showing Hawaiian crickets and a picture of a
semi-transparent Cave Cricket, photo by Bill Mull: http://www.hawaii-forest.com/essays/9902.html
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Cichlid species in Lake Victoria are extremely variable, displaying 500 color
morphs... in recent years, human activity has caused the water of Lake Victoria
to become cloudy. In these areas, the cichlids can't differentiate between
species. In these cloudy areas, bright color morphs have disappeared and the
fish have become similar and dull in appearance through hybridization
(Seehausen et al. 1997).
http://www.cichlidae.com/articles/a110.html (broken
link, see reference below)
Cichlids in
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11298988
Turner GF, Seehausen O, Knight ME, Allender CJ, Robinson RL. How many species
of cichlid fishes are there in African lakes? Mol Ecol. 2001 Mar;10(3):793-806.
http://www.hull.ac.uk/cichlids/GFTspp.pdf
From this article:
"...many taxa, including many which occur sympatrically and do not
interbreed in nature, produce viable, fertile hybrids."
"We have produced intergeneric hybrids of
References:
Seehausen O, van Alphen JJM, Witte F (1997) Cichlid fish diversity threatened
by eutrophication that curbs sexual selection. Science, 277, 1808-11.
Knight ME, Turner GF, Rico C, van Oppen MJH, Hewitt GM (1998) Microsatellite
paternity analysis on captive
------------
More on this:
"...mbuna [rockdweller cichlid] will hybridize under artificial
conditions (McElroy, D. M. & Kornfield, I. (1993) Copeia 1993, 933-945)... We
cannot rule out a role for hybridization..."
From:
R. C. Albertson, J. A. Markert, P. D. Danley, and T. D. Kocherdagger. Phylogeny
of a rapidly evolving clade: The cichlid fishes of
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/96/9/5107
------------
And More:
"We first estimated the effective number of genetic factors controlling
differences in the cichlid head through a comprehensive morphological
assessment of two Lake Malawi cichlid species and their F1 and F2 hybrid
progeny."
http://hcgs.unh.edu/CichlidEvol/CichlidEvol.html
[Here again, there is one true species with limitless varieties, with limitless
sub-species]
Cichlid Pictures: http://www.accuracyingenesis.com/kind.html
http://www.cichlids.com/gallery
http://www.hull.ac.uk/cichlids/mbuna_gallery.html
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3-
Dolphin and false killer whale: There has been one case of a female bottlenose
dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and a male false killer whale (Pseudorca
crassidens) producing a fertile female hybrid that has been called a wholphin.
She went on to breed with a dolphin and produced a daughter: In 1985, in the
http://www.oocities.org/plin9k/dolphins.jpg
--------------------
"in the order Cetacea, there appears to be few, if any, postcopulatory
species isolating mechanisms as successful hybridization between many species,
genera, and even sub-families have been recorded, (e.g., Fraser 1940; Nishiwaki
and Tobayama 1982; Reyes 1996)."
Taken from:
MacLeod, C. D. 2000. Species Recognition as a Possible Function for Variations
in Position and Shape of the Sexually Dimorphic Tusks of Mesoplodon Whales.
Evolution, 54(6):2171-3
References:
Fraser, F. C. 1940. Three anomalous dolphins from
Nishiwaki, M., and T. Tobayama. 1982. Morphological study on the hybrid between
Tursiops and Pseudorca. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.
Reyes, J. C. 1996. A possible case of hybridisation in wild dolphins. Mar.
Mamm. Sci. 12:301-307.
http://hotspotshawaii.com/Wolphin.html
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Porpoises: Dall's porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli) and harbour porpoises
(Phocoena phocoena) can conceive offspring. According to Baird et al (1998)
many individuals with intermediate pigmentation have been observed, indicating
that such offspring may be viable:
"Atypically-pigmented porpoises (usually traveling with and behaving like
Dall's porpoise) are regularly observed in the area around southern
http://www.dal.ca/~whitelab/rwb/hybrid.htm
[Abstract and full article in PDF]
To se video and audio of Porpoises: http://www.junglewalk.com/popup.asp?type=v&AnimalvideoID=150
[Harbor porpoises]
http://encarta.msn.com/Porpoise.html
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The Great Whales [fin whale x blue whale]:
Spilliaert R, Vikingsson G, Arnason U, Palsdottir A, Sigurjonsson J, Arnason A.
Species hybridization between a female blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) and a
male fin whale (B. physalus): molecular and morphological documentation. J
Hered. 1991 Jul-Aug;82(4):269-74.
"In 1986 a large, pregnant, female balaenopterid whale was caught in
Icelandic waters. The animal had morphological characteristics of both the blue
and the fin whale. Molecular analyses of the whale showed that it was a hybrid
between a female blue whale and a male fin whale. The descent of the species
hybrid was established without access to either parental specimen. Analysis of
the fetus showed that it had a blue whale father. The present report of species
hybridization between the two largest cetacean species, the blue and the fin
whale, documents the occurrence of cetacean species hybridization in the wild.
It is also the first example of any cetacean hybridization giving rise to a
fertile offspring."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=1679066
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Arnason U, Spilliaert R, Palsdottir A, Arnason A. Molecular identification of
hybrids between the two largest whale species, the blue whale (Balaenoptera
musculus) and the fin whale (B. physalus). Hereditas 1991;115(2):183-9.
"Three anomalous balaenopterid whales, one pregnant female and two sterile
males, were investigated by applying molecular approaches in order to establish
their identity. The analysis showed that the whales were species hybrids
between the blue and the fin whales. The female and one of the males had a blue
whale mother and a fin whale father. The other male had a fin whale mother and
a blue whale father."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=1687408
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Berube et al. Population genetic structure of
"[Recurrent] gene flow between adjacent populations"
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9633102
Palsboll PJ, Berube M, Aguilar A, Notarbartolo-Di-Sciara G, Nielsen R.
Discerning between recurrent gene flow and recent divergence under a
finite-site mutation model applied to North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea fin
whale (Balaenoptera physalus) populations. Evolution Int J Org Evolution 2004
Mar;58(3):670-5.
"Intensive commercial shore-based whaling during the 1920s removed
substantial numbers of fin whales in the
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15119452
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Page 236-237, National Audubon Society "Guide to Marine Mammals of the
World", 2002, Knopf, 528 p.
"Blue Whales are known to occasionally hybridize with Fin Whales, and
unlikely as it would seem given the considerable differences in size and
morphology between the two species, there is one well-documented report of a
Humpback--Blue Whale hybrid from the South Pacific." http://www.cmnh.org/dinoarch/2002Nov/msg00217.html
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0375411410/102-6048677-3273719
--------
The Humpback/Fin hybrid surprises me more, considering the mating rituals and
accompanying singing that Humpbacks engage in. But it confirms that Humpbacks
are Rorquels, albiet aberrant forms.
http://www.cmnh.org/dinoarch/2002Nov/msg00174.html
Pictures of the Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus): http://www.earthwindow.com/blue.html
Pictures of the Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus): http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Balaenoptera_physalus/more_still_images.html
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Grampus griseus (risso's dolphin) x Tursiops truncatus (bottlenose dolphin),
intermediate characters suggest hybridization
Taken from: Gray AP (Annie P), Mammalian Hybrids, 1972, Commonwealth
Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Bucks, England. Book database by 'genus': http://www.bryancore.org/hdb/index.html
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Bobcat and lynx: Bobcats (Lynx rufus) and lynxes (Lynx canadensis) can cross;
several such crosses have happened naturally in the wild. http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/main/pa/newsclips/03_06/0604_canadalynx.html
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A new variety of snake, product of a cross between an albino corn snake (Elaphe
guttata) and an albino king snake (Lampropeltis triangulum) in a reptile park
in Bakersfield, California and belongs to David Jolly, Manager of the
Information Department, AiG (USA). Apparently it is fertile. http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/magazines/docs/v22n3_liger.asp
Corn snakes are
one of the most popular pet snakes in
To
Download some 10 Free e-Books, mainly dealing with reptiles and amphibians: http://www.herper.com/ebooks/titles.html
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9-
Even the finches
on the Galapagos and on any other different habitat are able to mate and to
produce fertile young, showing conclusively that there are not different
species of finches but merely varieties of the same species. Finches mate
naturally, as studies by Peter and Rosemary Grant have proved. Here once more,
the fallibility on using the concept of "Species" is due to human
ignorance. Evolutionary thinking attempts to confuse uninformed readers with
their presuppositions and their inaccurate 'basic definitions.'
"Raise a
baby male zebra finch with a Bengalese mother finch, and the zebra finch will
grow up to ignore female zebra finches but devotedly court Bengalese finches
(Bischof 1994)." http://www.ratbehavior.org/Hybridization.htm
'Speciation' does
not occurred in the present or in the past, neither 'evolution'.
"You can never solve a problem on the level on which it was created."
"A man should look for what is, and not for what he thinks should
be." Albert Einstein.
"Most of these six ground finches will interbreed, and the hybrids are
fertile, meaning they can also breed among themselves. This information is
quite startling because it means that these six species may actually be one
species. And the actual degree of change is quite miniscule. The average beak
size may change by only a half a millimeter from dry to wet season. These six
finches are also indistinguishable in their mtDNA. As an icon of evolution, the
finches are far less than hoped for."
Fragment from:
"The
The fact that
evolution is not true can be seen also in those finches, they are of the same
real species or kind: "fertile parents = fertile offspring." Nothing
is 'evolving' beyond the natural limits established within the species:
http://www.carlzimmer.com/articles/2002/articles_2002_Finch.html
"The two species on Daphne Major can and sometimes do interbreed, and
their hybrids--far from being mule-like reproductive dead ends--are a source of
fresh genetic variability." "Interbreeding may be one of the
secrets... hybrids may be an unrecognized factor..." "...five male cactus
finches for every female. A few desperate males mated with female ground
finches, which then produced perfectly healthy and fertile hybrids."
"As a result, ground finch genes are flowing into the cactus finch gene
pool--a process called introgression--making their beaks blunter."
"Other biologists are surprised that two distantly related species can
produce healthy hybrids..." "This new source of genetic diversity
makes it easier for a species with donated genes to adapt to a changing
environment, the Grants claim."
In the words of
the researchers themselves:
Grant PR, Grant BR. Genetics and the origin of bird species. Proc Natl Acad Sci
U S A 1997 Jul 22;94(15):7768-75. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/94/15/7768
"...the populations are only partly reproductively isolated, interbreeding
occurs, and some of the hybrids survive to breed" "...species
hybridize, rarely, and are capable of producing fertile hybrids that backcross
to the parental species" "...interbreeding of species and the
breeding of hybrids ..."
[Refs: Grant, P. R. & Grant, B. R. (1992) Science 256, 193-197; Grant, P.
R. & Grant, B. R. (1997) Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 60, 317-343; Grant, B. R.
& Grant, P. R. (1997) in Endless Forms: Species and Speciation, eds.
Howard, D. J. & Berlocher, S. H. (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford)]
"...field observations of natural hybridization have been made on the
islands of Daphne Major"
[Grant, P. R. (1993) Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 340, 127-139, Grant,
P. R. & Price, T. D. (1981) Am. Zool. 21, 795-811, Boag, P. T. & Grant,
P. R. (1984) Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 22, 243-287]
" and [the island] Genovesa"
[Grant, B. R. & Grant, P. R. (1989) Evolutionary Dynamics of a Natural
Population: The Large Cactus Finch of the Galapagos (Univ.
"These show that all six species of
[Grant, P. R. (1986) Ecology and Evolution of Darwin's Finches (Princeton Univ.
Press, Princeton, N. J.), Bowman, R. I. (1983) in Patterns of Evolution in
Gal�pagos Organisms, eds. Bowman, R. I., Berson, M. & Leviton, A. E.
(American Association for the Advancement of Science, San Francisco), pp.
237-537].
On Daphne Major Geospiza fortis (medium ground finch) hybridizes with G.
scandens (cactus finch), another resident species, and G. fuliginosa (small
ground finch), an uncommon immigrant. Contrary to expectation from the
reinforcement hypothesis, hybrids formed by Geospiza fortis breeding with G.
scandens and G. fuliginosa are both viable and fertile to a degree similar to
that of the contemporary offspring of conspecific matings; so are the first two
generations of backcrosses" "Backcrossing negates the hypothesis of
speciation occurring entirely in allopatry." "In tests of several
species the discrimination was often weak, implying that song difference, by
itself, would not be sufficient to prevent interbreeding."
"At the point of ring closure or overlap where two populations establish
secondary contact they do not interbreed, or do so extremely rarely; e.g.,
herring gull and lesser black-backed gull. A cross-fostering experiment with
these gulls showed that, as in Darwin's finches, misimprinted birds are capable
of producing viable hybrids, i.e., once the premating isolating mechanism is
broken"
[Harris, M. P. (1970) Ibis 112, 488-498; Harris, M. P., Morley, C. & Green,
G. H. (1978) Bird Study 25, 161-166]
From the
Abstract:
"Ideas about
the genetics of speciation in general trace back to Dobzhansky who worked with
Drosophila. These ideas are an insufficient guide for reconstructing speciation
in birds " " the genetic basis to the origin of bird species is to be
sought in the inheritance of adult traits " "The genetic basis of the
origin of postmating isolating factors affecting the early development of
embryos (viability) and reproductive physiology (sterility) is almost
completely unknown. Bird speciation is facilitated by small population size,
involves few genetic changes, and occurs relatively rapidly."
[My comment: Here
"sub-speciation" is been sold as "speciation" in order to
keep the 'double-talk', 'weak and confusing terminologies', and the illusory
concepts of 'evolution', but the full text, as demonstrated before, presents a
different picture in which different 'species' of Galapagos finches interbreed
and produce fertile offspring, being then, not different 'species' but the same
'species'. The error being in the superficial morphological classification done
by Darwin, Haeckel and by others, instead of being based on the ancient
definition of "kind" ("fertile progenitors yielding fertile
little ones that in its time will breed fertile offspring"). The real
'Species' can not only be defined morphologically. Sub-speciation is the real
variation within species. Sub-speciation is deliberately confounded with
'speciation', which is the evolutionist speculation of the fictitious 'jumping'
of one species to be transmutated into another species. The best test is the
original definition of kind, which can be applied to the word 'Species':
"Fertile parents producing fertile offspring", implying the need of
the reproductive 'fertility test' also for the offspring. 'Evolution' tries to
confound the unlearned with tricky and weak definitions of 'species' to walk
around and aside from the simple and original truth present in the word 'kind'
that we found in the Bible.]
Some of the
Grant's recent works:
Grant PR, Grant BR, Keller LF, Markert JA, Petren K. Inbreeding and
interbreeding in
Markert JA, Grant PR, Grant BR, Keller LF, Coombs JL, Petren K. Neutral locus
heterozygosity, inbreeding, and survival in
Keller LF, Grant PR, Grant BR, Petren K. Environmental conditions affect the
magnitude of inbreeding depression in survival of
To see
pictures of those interfertile finches: http://www.rit.edu/~rhrsbi/GalapagosPages/Pictures/LandBirds/FinchTypes.jpeg
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The male 'cama':
Veterinarians in the
http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/magazines/docs/v22n3_liger.asp
http://www.cnn.com/EARTH/9801/20/cama.ap
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"Skidmore said they won't know whether Rama can reproduce until he reaches
puberty in about 18 months to two years... may live 20 or even 30 years if all
goes well, and when fully grown should weigh midway between a llama's average
weight of 75 kilos and a camel's 450 kilos." http://www.datadubai.com/cama1.htm
http://www.datadubai.com/cama2.htm
"A third camel-llama cross, the second male, born January of '03": http://www.taylorllamas.com/Camel-LamaCrossPhotos.html
Skidmore JA, Billah M, Binns M, Short RV, Allen WR. Hybridizing Old and
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10331286
Skidmore JA, Billah M, Short RV, Allen WR. Assisted reproductive techniques for
hybridization of camelids. Reprod Fertil Dev. 2001;13(7-8):647-52. [From
Abstract: "The camelid family comprises the
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10331286
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The female 'cama':
"Like a mule or hinny, the hybrid between a horse and donkey, she is
likely to be sterile... born after 343 days which is within the typical
gestation period for the llama (335-360 days), but is much shorter than the
camel's (385-395 days)... weighed only 5kg at birth. This is less than a
newborn llama which weighs around 10kg and much less than a newborn camel at
30kg. It is a striking illustration of how the size of the mother controls the
size of the newborn, irrespective of the size of the father... It seems that it
is easier for the female llama to conceive from camel semen than for the female
camel to conceive from llama semen." http://www.gulf-news.com/Articles/news.asp?ArticleID=43065
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" Lama glama, the llama; Lama pacos, the alpaca; Lama guanicoe, the
Guanaco; and Vicugna vicugna, the Vicuna. They will
interbreed and do produce fertile hybrids." http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/other/other-w.htm
http://www.fungus.org.uk/camelids.htm
"The Incas domesticated the guanaco to produce the llama and the vicuna to
produce the alpaca. All four of these New World camelids can readily be made to
hybridise with each other." http://www.gulf-news.com/Articles/news.asp?ArticleID=43065
http://www.taylorllamas.com/Camel-LamaCrossPhotos.html
"Llamas, guanacos, alpacas and vicunas can interbreed and should therefore
be pastured separately."
http://www.llama-llocater.com/llama_facts.html
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Bactrian Camel x Dromedary Camels
"The Bactrian and Dromedary Camels can interbreed. The resulting offspring
has a single, elongated hump that extends the length of its back. http://camelphotos.com/camel_breeds.html
http://www.exoticdeer.org/blaschke2b.htm
Arabian camel x Bactrian camel: http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/pubs/camels.htm
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Ibex x goats:
There are several different species of ibex -- Alpine (or European), Nubian (or
Arabian), Siberian (or Asiatic) and walia (or Abyssinian). In
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14-
The Plains zebras are also sub-species (Grants x Damaraland cross). The
difference is in their striping pattern and range. They can interbreed and have
fertile offspring. http://www.oocities.org/SoHo/Studios/2905/zebxing.html
Zebra born
without the stripes in
Veterinarians have yet to determine the gender of the baby zebra but have
determined that it is about 4 weeks old. The purebred zebra is also apparently
fitting in with its black and white herd and can be seen hopping and prancing
around. Experts do not plan to take the zebra away from its mom or the herd but
plan to study it as it grows up.
Stripeless Zebra Puzzles Experts: http://www.local6.com/news/2999935/detail.html
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The American and European bison can interbreed and produce fertile offspring,
they have clear differences in their physical characteristics, and geographical
separation for a long time.
http://www.csew.com/cattletag/Cattle%20Website/Fact_Sheets/American_Bison/American_Bison.htm
More pictures of European bison (Bison bonasus): http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Bison_bonasus.html
More pictures of American Bison (Bison bison): http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Bison_bison.html
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Guinea pigs:
Cavia cutleri m x Cavia porcellus, fertile viable F1 hybrids.
Cavia fulgida x Cavia porcellus, sterile viable F1 hybrids, however,
Detlefsen reports fertile hybrids in the wild.
Taken from: Gray AP, Mammalian Hybrids, 1972, Commonwealth Agricultural
Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Bucks,
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17-
Northeastern coyotes, product of hybridization between Canadian wolves and
Western coyotes:
http://www.wildlifetech.com/pages/necoyote.htm
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Red wolves:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9919703
Also "red wolf/coyote hybrid litters were born":
http://www.oocities.org/kanamist/Redwolf.html
"Deforestation and loss of habitat allowed coyotes to move eastward and
began to interbreed with the red wolf":
http://www.wolfhowl.org/info
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Canis familiaris x Vulpes bengalensis (a fox), vixen kept as pet mated with
Alsatian x Bull Terrier dog.
Canis familiaris x Vulpes fulva. Hybrids reported.
Canis familiaris x Vulpes vulpes, one F1 may have been conceived.
Canis familiaris dingo x Vulpes vulpes, hybrids have been reported.
Taken from: Gray AP, Mammalian Hybrids, 1972, Commonwealth Agricultural
Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Bucks,
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Wild red foxes x silver foxes:
Prasolova LA,
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12018162
Vulpes fulva x Vulpes vulpes, believed fertile.
Alopex lagopus x Vulpes vulpes. Reciprocal crosses are possible, often
literature makes no distinction between V. vulpes and V. fulva.
Alopex lagopus x Vulpes fulva, reciprocal crosses have occurred, some sterile
others fertile, backcrosses have also occurred. One hybrid had 43 chromosomes
compared to 34 for Vulpes and 52 for Alopex, through artificial insemination.
Taken from: Gray AP, Mammalian Hybrids, 1972, Commonwealth Agricultural
Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Bucks,
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Hieracium:
Morgan-Richards M, Trewick SA, Chapman HM, Krahulcova A. Interspecific
hybridization among Hieracium species in New Zealand: evidence from flow
cytometry. Heredity 2004 May 12
" the majority of field hybrids were pentaploid with a genome size
equivalent to four H. pilosella and one H. praealtum haploid chromosome sets.
We infer that these are not first-generation hybrids but represent successful
backcrossing with H. pilosella and/or hybrid-hybrid crossing, and that sexual
tetraploid hybrids have been the parents... our data indicate the emergence of
sexual hybrids that provide further opportunity for gene flow among taxa in
this complex."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15138450
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Banksia:
Lamont BB, He T, Enright NJ, Krauss SL, Miller BP. Anthropogenic disturbance
promotes hybridization between Banksia species by altering their biology. J
Evol Biol. 2003 Jul;16(4):551-7.
"Putative hybrids between Banksia hookeriana and B. prionotes were
identified among 12 of 106 populations of B. hookeriana located at or near
anthropogenically disturbed sites, mainly roadways, but none in 156 undisturbed
populations... By promoting earlier flowering of B. hookeriana plants and
prolonging flowering of B. prionotes, anthropogenic disturbance broke the
phenological barrier between these two species. We conclude that anthropogenic
disturbance promotes hybridization through increasing opportunities for gene
flow by reducing interpopulation separation, increasing gamete production and,
especially, promoting coflowering."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14632219
To see beautiful Banksias, go to "Growing Banksias in
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23-
Tilia:
Fromm M, Hattemer HH. Inheritance of allozymes and hybridization in two
European Tilia species. Heredity 2003 Sep;91(3):337-44.
"Zymograms of 10 spontaneous T. cordata x T. platyphyllos hybrids showed
markedly different banding patterns with species-specific alleles at 13 of the
14 described gene loci. Hence, differentiation between both species and their
naturally occurring hybrid (T. x europaea) is easily feasible with allozyme
studies."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12939637
+++++++++
24-
Drosophila:
Garbuz D, Evgenev MB, Feder ME, Zatsepina OG. Evolution of thermotolerance and
the heat-shock response: evidence from inter/intraspecific comparison and
interspecific hybridization in the virilis species group of Drosophila. I.
Thermal phenotype. J Exp Biol. 2003 Jul;206(Pt 14):2399-408.
"Because D. virilis and D. lummei can readily be crossed to yield
partially fertile progeny, genetic analysis of interspecific differences is
possible. Interspecific hybrids are intermediate to the parental species in
basal thermotolerance and inducible thermotolerance and resemble D. virilis in
Hsp concentrations after intense heat shock and Hsp70 protein
electromorphs."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12796457
----------
Sainz A, Wilder
JA, Wolf M, Hollocher H. Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans rescue strains
produce fit offspring, despite divergent centromere-specific histone alleles.
Heredity 2003 Jul;91(1):28-35.
"A recent
theory proposes that the independent evolution of centromere-binding proteins
in isolated populations may be a universal cause of speciation among
eukaryotes. In Drosophila the centromere-specific histone, Cid (centromere
identifier), shows extensive sequence divergence between D. melanogaster and
the D. simulans clade..." "Through comparisons of cid sequence
between nonrescue and rescue strains, we show that cid is not involved in
restoring hybrid viability or female fertility. Further, we demonstrate that
divergent cid alleles are not sufficient to cause inviability or female
sterility in hybrid crosses." "cid... is not a speciation gene."
----------
David J, Lemeunier F, Tsacas L, Bocquet C. Hybridization of a new species,
Drosophila mauritiana, with D. melanogaster and D. simulans. Ann Genet. 1974
Dec;17(4):235-41. No abstract available.
+++++++++
25-
In Saccharomyces, "Mating experiments show that there are no barriers to
interspecific conjugation of haploid cells":
de Barros Lopes M, Bellon JR, Shirley NJ, Ganter PF. Evidence for multiple
interspecific hybridization in Saccharomyces sensu stricto species. FEMS Yeast
Res. 2002 Jan;1(4):323-31.
"Fluorescent amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis demonstrates
a high level of gene exchange between Saccharomyces sensu stricto species, with
some strains having undergone multiple interspecific hybridization events with
subsequent changes in genome complexity. Two lager strains were shown to be
hybrids between Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the alloploid species
Saccharomyces pastorianus. The genome structure of CBS 380(T), the type strain
of Saccharomyces bayanus, is also consistent with S. pastorianus gene transfer.
The results indicate that the cider yeast, CID1, possesses nuclear DNA from
three separate species. Mating experiments show that there are no barriers to
interspecific conjugation of haploid cells. Furthermore, the allopolyploid
strains were able to undergo further hybridizations with other Saccharomyces
sensu stricto yeasts. These results demonstrate that introgression between the
Saccharomyces sensu stricto species is likely.'
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12702336
----------------
Recently,
experiments with yeast have demonstrated the restructuring of existing
chromosomal information to restore mating compatibility (Nature Vol. 422/6
March pp 25-26, 2003.) Remember that yeast can naturally reproduce itself by
cloning, like plants and bacteria.
----------------
The abuse of the
term "evolution" has been so shameless that prominent scientists
don't dare to call with that name, even to the simple polyploidy in yeast, a
gene duplication in yeast (Kellis M, Birren BW, Lander ES. Proof and
evolutionary analysis of ancient genome duplication in the yeast Saccharomyces
cerevisiae. Nature 2004 Mar 7), and then to compare it with the cancerous cells
(In certain types of cancer cells have twice as many chromosomes as they
should, and there are many other diseases linked to gene dosage and
misregulation, "These processes are not much different from what happened
in yeast", Kellis said.)
Does the yeast
then become something else than yeast? Does bacteria become something else than
bacteria after centuries of dealing with them in the Lab? Are gene duplications
and diseases (cancer, virus, etc.) the best examples to 'support' the hypotheses
of "evolution"?
+++++++++
26-
Xiphophorus (Teleostei: Poeciliidae) fish:
Li HY, Savage T, Obermoeller RD, Kazianis S, Walter RB. Parental
5-methylcytosine methylation patterns are stable upon inter-species
hybridization of Xiphophorus (Teleostei: Poeciliidae) fish. Comp Biochem
Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol. 2002 Dec;133(4):581-95.
"Through F(1) inter-species hybridization and succeeding meiosises leading
to first generation (BC(1)) and second generation (BC(2)) backcross hybrid
progeny, we demonstrate that parental species methylation patterns are
stable."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12470821
Excellent images demonstrating that Xiphophorus interbreed: http://www.xiphophorus.org/images.htm
+++++++++
27-
Ground squirrels (Spermophilus: Rodentia, Sciuridae):
Ermakov OA, Surin VL, Titov SV, Tagiev AF, Luk'ianenko AV, Formozov NA. Study
of hybridization in four species of ground squirrels (Spermophilus: Rodentia,
Sciuridae) by molecular genetic methods. Genetika 2002 Jul;38(7):950-64.
"Four species of ground squirrel--yellow (Spermophilus fulvus), russet (S.
major), small (S. pygmaeus), and spotted (S. suslicus)--occur in the
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12174588
To see pictures of squirrels: http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/pictures/Tamiasciurus.html
+++++++++
28-
Corals (Acropora groups):
Van Oppen MJ, Willis BL, Van Rheede T, Miller DJ. Spawning times, reproductive
compatibilities and genetic structuring in the Acropora aspera group: evidence
for natural hybridization and semi-permeable species boundaries in corals. Mol
Ecol. 2002 Aug;11(8):1363-76.
"The breeding trials showed that reproductive compatibility exists between
at least some colonies of all the species pairs tested (A. millepora, A.
papillare, A. pulchra and A. spathulata), suggesting a large potential for
natural hybridization and introgression... observation of A. aspera x A.
pulchra F1 hybrids, identified based on additivity of ITS
sequences."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12144658
van Oppen MJ, McDonald BJ, Willis B, Miller DJ. The evolutionary history of the
coral genus Acropora (Scleractinia, Cnidaria) based on a mitochondrial and a
nuclear marker: reticulation, incomplete lineage sorting, or morphological convergence?
Mol Biol Evol. 2001 Jul;18(7):1315-29. http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/18/7/1315
"Discussion: Introgressive Hybridization or Incomplete Lineage Sorting?
The incongruence between the nuclear and the mitochondrial trees, in
combination with the nonmonophyly of many species, suggests either that
introgressive hybridization has occurred or that lineage sorting is
incomplete... two pieces of additional independent evidence lead us to favor
the hybridization hypothesis. First, many species are capable of successful
cross-fertilization with a range of congeners (Willis, B. L., R. C. Babcock,
P.L.Harrison, and C. C. Wallace. 1997. Experimental hybridization and breeding
incompatibilities within the mating systems of mass spawning reef corals. Coral
Reefs 16(Suppl.):553-565) and second, species forming genetically distinct
clusters in the phylogenetic analyses tend to differ with regard to the time of
gamete release... Many A. acropora species are capable of successful
interspecific hybridization in vitro (Willis et al, 1997 (ref. above); Hatta,
M., H. Fukami, W.Wang, M.Mori, K.Shimoike, T. Hayashibara, Y.Ina, and T.
Sugiyama. 1999. Reproductive and genetic evidence for a reticulate evolutionary
history of mass-spawning corals. Mol. Biol. Evol. 16:1607-1613), and genetic
data confirm that introgressive hybridization occurs in nature (Odorico, D. M.,
and D. J. Miller. 1997. Variation in the ribosomal internal transcribed spacers
and 5.8S rDNA among five species of Acropora (Cnidaria, Scleractinia): patterns
of variation consistent with reticulate evolution. Mol. Biol. Evol. 14:465-473;
Hatta et al. 1999 (ref. above); Van Oppen, M. J. H., B. L. Willis, H.W.J.A. Van
Vugt, and D. J. Miller. 2000. Examination of species boundaries in the Acropora
cervicornis group (Scleractinia, Cnidaria) using nuclear DNA sequence analyses.
Mol. Ecol. 9:1363-1373). Hence, the second hypothesis [hybridization-dependent,
introgressive hybridization] is the most plausible. Although no breeding trials
have been performed using A. humilis or A. microphthalma, it is possible that
these species are reproductively compatible with several other A. acropora
species [......clusters that comprise several morphospecies represent a
syngameon, i.e., the sum total of species or semispecies linked by frequent or
occasional hybridization in nature; [hence] a hybridizing group of species ...
(Grant, V. 1957. The plant species in theory and practice. P. 67 in E. Mayr, ed.
The species problem. American Association for the Advancement of Science,
L. M. Marquez, D. J. Miller, J. B. MacKenzie, and M. J. H. van Oppen.
Pseudogenes Contribute to the Extreme Diversity of Nuclear Ribosomal DNA in the
Hard Coral Acropora. Mol. Biol. Evol.
http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/20/7/1077
"...the presence of pseudogenes does not affect inferences from these data
about interspecific hybridization." "How did the unprecedented rDNA
diversity within individual Acropora colonies and species originate?
Interspecific hybridization may have combined divergent rDNA copies within
single genomes. As the mismatch repair machinery seems sensitive to high
numbers of mismatches, large sequence divergences in the spacer regions may have
suppressed recombination across the entire rDNA array..."
"Independent hybridization events could lead to different patterns of
nucleolar dominance [the selective silencing of the corresponding rRNA genes by
mechanisms that involve chromatin modification]..." "Alternatively,
hybridization may have caused chromosomal rearrangements (Rieseberg, van
Fossen, and Desrochers 1995), which relocated rDNA copies to different
chromosomal positions... In situ hybridization is required to determine whether
the divergent sequences in Acropora are present in more than one nucleolus
organizer region (NOR)." "Another possible consequence of combining
diverse rDNA copies during hybridization is silencing of some loci."
Folding of 5.8S rRNA sequences... The arrows indicate "noncompensatory
mutations": http://mbe.oupjournals.org/content/vol20/issue7/images/large/mbev-20-07-05-f02.jpeg
To see beautiful pictures of coral reefs (Acropora) and their surroundings: http://www.oceanwideimages.com.au/categories.asp?cID=43&c=254527
+++++++++
29-
Carabid beetles Carabus:
Sota T, Ishikawa R, Ujiie M, Kusumoto F, Vogler AP. Extensive trans-species
mitochondrial polymorphisms in the carabid beetles Carabus subgenus Ohomopterus
caused by repeated introgressive hybridization. Mol Ecol. 2001
Dec;10(12):2833-47.
"C. insulicola can hybridize naturally with at least two... Recent one-way
introgression of mitochondria from C. arrowianus nakamurai to C. insulicola,
and from C. insulicola to C. esakii, was inferred from the frequency of
identical sequences between these species and from direct evidence of
hybridization in their contact zones. Other intraspecific polymorphisms in the
four species may be due to undetected introgressive hybridization (e.g. C.
insulicola to C. maiyasanus)...This beetle group has a genital lock-and-key
system, with species-specific or subspecies-specific genital morphology that
may act as a barrier to hybridization. However, our results demonstrate that
introgressive hybridization has occurred multiple times, at least for
mitochondria, despite differences among, and stability within, morphological
characters that distinguish local populations."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11903896
To see Carabus' pictures: http://www.volny.cz/midge/carabus/carabus.htm
+++++++++
30-
Macaques:
Evans BJ, Supriatna J, Melnick DJ. Hybridization and population genetics of two
macaque species in
"Hybridization is the interbreeding of individuals from different parental
taxa that are distinguishable by one or more heritable characteristics. Because
hybridization can affect population structure of the parental taxa, it is an
important consideration for conservation management. On the Indonesian
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11580028
Pictures of Macaques: http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwvir/VirusInfo/macaque.html
+++++++++
31-
Butterflies (Parnassius, Lepidoptera, Papilionidae):
Zakharov EV. The demonstration of natural hybridization between two swallowtail
species Parnassius nomion and Parnassius bremeri (Lepidoptera, Papilionidae)
using RAPD-PCR technique. Genetika 2001 Apr;37(4):475-84.
"Genetic evidence for interspecific hybridization between Parnassius
nomion and Parnassius bremeri in nature is presented... the interspecific
hybrids were intermediate with regard to the parental species. Ecological and
biological characteristics of two swallowtail species that promote their
hybridization in nature are discussed."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11421120
-------------
Deschamps-Cottin M, Aubert J, Barascud B, Descimon H. Hybridization and
introgression between "full-fledged species". The case of Parnassius
apollo and P. phoebus. C R Acad Sci III 2000 Mar;323(3):327-37.
"Two butterfly species living in the Alps, Parnassius apollo and P.
phoebus, frequently hybridize in certain localities of this region... male
hybrids are fecund and thus that interspecific gene exchange could take place
via backcrosses with the parent species... hybridization can involve both sexes
of both species... female hybrids are not sterile."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10782337
To observe beautiful ones, go to "Waldeck's Parnassius of the World":
http://www.oocities.org/tgorw_sm/paindex.htm?200519
+++++++++
32-
Typha:
Kuehn MM, Minor JE, White BN. An examination of hybridization between the
cattail species typha latifolia and typha angustifolia using random amplified
polymorphic DNA and chloroplast DNA markers. Mol Ecol. 1999 Dec;8(12):1981-90.
"Typha glauca represents a significant portion of the biomass of the
wetlands surrounding the Great Lakes,
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10632850
+++++++++
33-
Vanilla:
Nielsen LR, Siegismund HR. Interspecific differentiation and hybridization in
vanilla species (Orchidaceae). Heredity 1999 Nov;83 (Pt 5):560-7.
"...at localities... species coexist. This suggests that the species may
hybridize."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10620028
+++++++++
34-
Rhododendron (Azaleas):
Milne RI, Abbott RJ, Wolff K, Chamberlain DF. Hybridization among sympatric
species of Rhododendron (Ericaceae) in
" Rhododendron (Ericaceae) is a large genus in which barriers to
hybridization are especially weak... Hybridization among four species of
Rhododendron subsect. Pontica, which occur in sympatry in Turkey, was
investigated. Material of R. ponticum, R. smirnovii, R. ungernii, and R.
caucasicum and their putative hybrids was collected from the wild...
Rhododendron ponticum x R. smirnovii was represented by a single individual and
R. caucasicum x R. smirnovii by one small group of hybrid plants. The
combinations R. ponticum x R. ungernii and R. ungernii x R. smirnovii showed
evidence of frequent backcrossing, while R. ponticum x R. caucasicum appeared
unusual in that an intermediate hybrid type was abundant, whereas hybrids with
phenotypes approaching either parent were rare... The results suggest that
natural hybridization among Rhododendron species is common..."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10602769
To see different Rhododendron (Azaleas): http://education.uncc.edu/droyster/gardens.html
http://www.infochembio.ethz.ch/links/en/botanik_rhododendron.html
+++++++++
35-
Fritillaria:
Wang Z. Preliminary studies on intervarietal and interspecific hybridization
breeding methods of Fritillaria thunbergii Miq. and its kindred species.
Zhongguo Zhong
"Intervarietal F1 hybrids of Fritiliaria thunbergii and
interspecific F1 hybrids between F. thunbergii and its kindred species
were successfully obtained. The methods of breaking the dormancy of F1
seeds and F1 bulbs were investigated. Moreover, the temperature
off-season generational advance was preliminarily grouped."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=1786092
+++++++++
36-
Sunfish (Lepomis):
Avise JC, Saunders NC. Hybridization and introgression among species of
sunfish (Lepomis): analysis by mitochondrial DNA and allozyme markers. Genetics
1984 Sep;108(1):237-55.
" interspecific hybrids, all of which appeared to be F1's... the
involvement of five sympatric Lepomis species in the production of these
hybrids... a tendency for hybridizations to take place preferentially between
parental species differing greatly in abundance... a tendency for the rare
species in a hybrid cross to provide the female parent."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=6090268
To see pictures of some Lepomis (Sunfishes): http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/pictures/Lepomis.html
http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/seagrant/GLWL/Fish/sunfish/sunfish.html
----------
A similar observation appeared in a Review:
Wirtz P. Mother species-father species: unidirectional hybridization in animals
with female choice. Anim Behav. 1999 Jul;58(1):1-12.
"Hybrid matings are usually between the females of a rare species and the
males of a common species, but not vice versa."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10413535
+++++++++
37-
Slider:
Common.
Red-eared Slider (Trachemys scripta elegans)
Rare but increasing. NON-NATIVE. Common in the beaver pond at
http://www.nps.gov/bibe/reptilechecklist.htm
////////////////
38-
Voles:
Gileva EA, Bol'shakov VN, Polyavina OV, Cheprakov MI. The vole species Microtus
arvalis and Microtus rossiaemeridionalis in the Urals: hybridization in the
wild. Dokl Biol Sci. 2000 Jan-Feb;370(1-6):47-50.
-----------
More recently, the next article related to "voles" was found: Iwasa
MA, Suzuki H. Intra- and interspecific genetic complexities of two Eothenomys
species in
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=14569153&dopt=Abstract
Pictures of Voles: http://www.agnr.umd.edu/users/hgic/diagn/graphics/large/vole_l.JPG
http://www.rodentcontrol-supplies.com/voles.2.gif
+++++++++
39-
Simulium:
Boakye DA, Mosha FW. Natural hybridization between Simulium sanctipauli and S.
sirbanum, two sibling species of the S. damnosum complex. Med Vet Entomol. 1988
Oct;2(4):397-9. No abstract available.
+++++++++
40-
Ducks:
Deray A. Effects of hybridization on ovary and ovulatory activity in adult
hybrid ducks resulting from a cross between
+++++++++
41-
Snails:
Barbosa FS. Possible competitive displacement and evidence of hybridization
between two Brazilian species of planorbid snails. Malacologia 1973;14(1-2):401-8.
No abstract available.
+++++++++
42-
Ticks:
Oliver JH Jr, Wilkinson PR, Kohls GM. Observations on hybridization of three
species of North American Dermacentor ticks. J Parasitol. 1972 Apr;58(2):380-4.
No abstract available.
+++++++++
43-
Nematodes (Cooperia):
Isenstein RS. Hybridization of two species of nematodes parasitic in ruminants,
Cooperia oncophora (Railliet, 1898) Ransom, 1907, and Cooperia pectinata
Ransom, 1907. J Parasitol. 1971 Apr;57(2):320-6. No abstract available.
+++++++++
44-
Gorman GC, Atkins L. Natural hybridization between two sibling species of
Anolis lizards: chromosome cytology. Science. 1968 Mar 22;159(821):1358-60. No abstract
available.
+++++++++
45-
Podcherniaeva RIa, Sokolov MI, Ratushkina LS. Further studies
on the intra-species hybridization of influenza A viruses. Vopr Virusol. 1968
Mar-Apr;13(2):209-12. Russian. No abstract available.
+++++++++
46-
Lacerta:
Darevskii IS, Kulikova VN. Natural triploidy in a polymorphous group of Lacerta
saxicola eversmann as a consequence of hybridization of bisexual and
parthenogenic varieties of this species. Dokl Akad Nauk SSSR 1964 Sep
1;158:202-5. +++++++++
47-
Genus Gedoelstia? (Diptera: Oestridae):
Basson PA, Zumpt F, Bauristhene E. Is there a species hybridization in the Genus
Gedoelstia? (Diptera: Oestridae). Z Parasitenkd. 1963 Oct 29;23:348-53. No
abstract available.
+++++++++
48-
All bacteria:
Baron LS, Spilman WM, Carey WF. Hybridization of Salmonella species by mating
with Escherichia coli. Science 1959 Sep 4;130:566-7. No abstract available.
+++++++++
And more examples:
49-
Brassica:
"Cabbage, cauliflower,
http://www.ipmvenki.com/mboard_mainframe.htm
Axelsson T, Bowman CM, Sharpe AG, Lydiate DJ, Lagercrantz U. Amphidiploid
Brassica juncea contains conserved progenitor genomes. Genome 2000
Aug;43(4):679-88.
"...markers; one generated from a cross between a resynthesized B. juncea
(a chromosome doubled interspecific B. rapa x B. nigra hybrid) and a natural B.
juncea cultivar, the other from a cross between two B. juncea cultivars. By
using a common cultivar in both crosses, the two maps could be unambiguously
integrated. All loci exhibited disomic inheritance of parental alleles in the
natural x resynthesized cross, showing that B. rapa chromosomes paired
exclusively with their A-genome homologues in B. juncea and that B. nigra
chromosomes likewise paired with their B-genome homologues. The maps derived
from the two crosses were also perfectly collinear. Furthermore, these maps
were collinear with maps of the diploid progenitor species (B. nigra and B.
rapa) produced using the same set of RFLP probes. These data indicate that the
genome of B. juncea has remained essentially unchanged since polyploid
formation. Our observations appear to refute the suggestion that the formation
of polyploid genomes is accompanied by rapid change in genome structure."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10984181
Liu R, Qian W, Meng J. Association of RFLP markers and biomass heterosis in
trigenomic hybrids of oilseed rape (Brassica napus x B. campestris). Theor Appl
Genet. 2002 Nov;105(6-7):1050-1057.
"The objective of this study was to elucidate the relationship between
molecular markers and biomass heterosis of the interspecific hybrid between B.
napus and B. campestris, which has been explored practically in rapeseed
production for many years... Using these active markers, a statistical model to
resolve the heterosis is proposed and a new way to make use of the subgenomic
heterosis is also discussed."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12582933
Frieman, M., Z. J. Chen, J. S. Vasquez, L. A. Shen, and C. S. Pikaard. 1999.
RNA polymerase I transcription in a Brassica interspecific hybrid and its
progenitors: tests of transcription factor involvement in nucleolar dominance.
Genetics 152:451-460.
"In interspecific hybrids or allopolyploids, often one parental set of
ribosomal RNA genes is transcribed and the other is silent, an epigenetic
phenomenon known as nucleolar dominance... using Brassica napus (canola), an
allotetraploid derived from B. rapa and B. oleracea in which only B. rapa rRNA
genes are transcribed. B. oleracea and B. rapa rRNA genes were active when
transfected into protoplasts of the other species... B. oleracea and B. rapa
rRNA genes also competed equally for the pol I transcription machinery in vitro
and in vivo... These data are inconsistent with the prevailing models and point
to discrimination mechanisms that are likely to act at a chromosomal
level."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10224274
Chen ZJ, Pikaard CS. Transcriptional analysis of nucleolar dominance in
polyploid plants: biased expression/silencing of progenitor rRNA genes is
developmentally regulated in Brassica. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997 Apr
1;94(7):3442-7.
"...in Brassica napus, rRNA genes silenced in vegetative tissues were
found to be expressed in all floral organs, including sepals and petals,
arguing against the hypothesis that passage through meiosis is needed to
reactivate suppressed genes. Instead, the transition of inflorescence to floral
meristem appears to be a developmental stage when silenced genes can be
derepressed."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9096413
Chen ZJ, Pikaard CS. Epigenetic silencing of RNA polymerase I transcription: a
role for DNA methylation and histone modification in nucleolar dominance. Genes
Dev. 1997 Aug 15;11(16):2124-36.
"We have demonstrated nucleolar dominance in three allotetraploids of the
plant genus Brassica. In Brassica napus, accurately initiated pre-rRNA
transcripts from one progenitor, Brassica rapa are detected readily, whereas
transcripts from the approximately 3000 rRNA genes inherited from the other
progenitor, Brassica oleracea, are undetectable... Growth of B. napus seedlings
on 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine to inhibit cytosine methylation caused the normally
silent, under-dominant B. oleracea rRNA genes to become expressed to high
levels. The histone deacetylase inhibitors sodium butyrate and trichostatin A
also derepressed silent rRNA genes. These results reveal an enforcement
mechanism for nucleolar dominance in which DNA methylation and histone
modifications combine to regulate rRNA gene loci spanning tens of megabase
pairs of DNA."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9284051
Halfhill MD, Millwood RJ, Raymer PL, Stewart CN Jr. Bt-transgenic oilseed rape
hybridization with its weedy relative, Brassica rapa. Environ Biosafety Res.
2002 Oct;1(1):19-28.
"The movement of transgenes from crops to weeds and the resulting
consequences are concerns of modern agriculture. The possible generation of
"superweeds" from the escape of fitness-enhancing transgenes into
wild populations is a risk that is often discussed, but rarely studied. Oilseed
rape, Brassica napus (L.), is a crop with sexually compatible weedy relatives,
such as birdseed rape (Brassica rapa (L.)). Hybridization of this crop with
weedy relatives is an extant risk and an excellent interspecific gene flow
model system... The hybrids were backcrossed with the weedy parent, and only
half the oilseed rape lines were able to produce transgenic backcrosses. After
two backcrosses, the ploidy level and morphology of the resultant plants were
indistinguishable from B. rapa..."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15612253
Halfhill MD, Zhu B, Warwick SI, Raymer PL, Millwood RJ, Weissinger AK, Stewart
CN Jr. Hybridization and backcrossing between transgenic oilseed rape and two
related weed species under field conditions. Environ Biosafety Res. 2004
Apr-Jun;3(2):73-81.
"Determining the frequency of crop-wild transgene flow under field
conditions is a necessity for the development of regulatory strategies to
manage transgenic hybrids... Results show that transgene flow from many independent
transformed lines of B. napus to B. rapa can occur under a range of field
conditions, and that transgenic hybrids have a high potential to produce
transgenic seeds in backcrosses."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15612504
+++++++++
50-
Hyalodaphnia:
Schwenk K, Posada D, Hebert PD. Molecular
systematics of European Hyalodaphnia: the role of contemporary hybridization in
ancient species. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2000 Sep 22;267(1455):1833-42.
"Many species of the Hyalodaphnia are known to hybridize in nature"
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11052533
+++++++++
51-
Treefrogs (Genus Hyla):
Mable BK, Bogart JP. Hybridization between tetraploid and diploid species of
treefrogs (Genus hyla). J Hered. 1995 Nov-Dec;86(6):432-40
"First generation hybrids between a H. versicolor female from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8568210
----------------
More on Frogs (Hyla cinerea males and Hyla gratiosa females):
Lamb T., J. C.
Avise, 1986 Directional introgression of mitochondrial DNA in a hybrid
population of tree frogs: the influence of mating behavior. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
83:2526-2530.
To see
pictures of Hyla frogs: http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/pictures/Hyla.html
+++++++++
52-
Toads:
"We examined both the frequency and fitness effects of hybridization
between plains spadefoot toads (Spea bombifrons) and
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12389729
+++++++++
53-
Sunflower (Helianthus):
Faure N, Serieys H, Cazaux E, Kaan F, Berville A. Partial hybridization in wide
crosses between cultivated sunflower and the perennial Helianthus species H.
mollis and H. orgyalis. Ann Bot (Lond). 2002 Jan;89(1):31-9.
"To obtain introgressed sunflower lines with improved disease resistance,
interspecific crosses were performed with foreign perennial species...
Phenotypes were predominantly similar to the female when cultivated sunflower
was the female parent. Progeny from crosses using a wild species as the female
parent resembled that parent. Thus, reciprocal crosses led to different
progeny. F1 sister progeny shared different sets of molecular markers
representing a few of those of the wild species used as the pollen donor. Our
results indicate mechanisms leading to the unusual event of partial
hybridization."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12096817
-----------
Rieseberg L. H.,
D. E. Soltis, 1991 Phylogenetic consequences of cytoplasmic gene flow in plants
Evol. Trends Plants 5:65-84.
There we read
that some "species" (varieties) seem to have captured the cpDNA of
other "species" (varieties) on multiple occasions.
To see
different Helianthus: http://www.desert-tropicals.com/Plants/Asteraceae/Helianthus.html
+++++++++
54-
Aedes:
"Morphology of hybrids between Aedes (Protomacleaya) zoosophus and Ae.
(Pro.) triseriatus group species is described. Aedes brelandi/Ae. zoosophus
hybrids are similar to Ae. hendersoni/Ae. zoosophus hybrids."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=2903902
+++++++++
55-
Ipomopsis (Polemoniaceae):
Wolf PG,
"The Ipomopsis aggregata species complex (Polemoniaceae) includes species
pairs that hybridize readily in nature as well as pairs that meet along contact
zones with no apparent hybridization. Artificial hybrids can be made between
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11222244
+++++++++
56-
Fishes, crayfishes, mussels, and other invertebrates:
Perry WL, Lodge DM, Feder JL. Importance of hybridization between indigenous
and nonindigenous freshwater species: an overlooked threat to North American
biodiversity. Syst Biol. 2002 Apr;51(2):255-75.
"Identification of which species are likely to hybridize after contact is
of critical importance to prevent the further loss of native species... species
at risk of introgression... Although not a thorough review of all cases of
hybridization, this article documents the extent and effects of hybridization
in fishes, crayfishes, mussels, and other invertebrates... this approach may be
the first step in addressing the potential threat of hybridization between many
of the closely related species in North American fresh waters."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12028732
///////////////////
And from:
http://www.iscid.org/boards/ubb-get_topic-f-6-t-000488-p-7.html
(posted in 14. May 2004
57-
The two different colored snow geese were once thought to be two separate
species. However, since the blue and white birds nest together and interbreed,
taxonomists have determined that the blue goose is simply a color phase of the
snow goose.
http://www.inetshops.com/newipnews/naturewalkl.htm
58-
Many duck species will interbreed, so these species often need to be aviary
bred.
http://www.goodzoos.com/Animals/birds.htm
59-
This species occurs in two forms in Europe, the all-dark Carrion Crow of
western Europe and the grey-bodied 'Hooded Crow' of Scandinavia and Eastern
Europe. Although these birds look completely different, they often interbreed
where the range overlaps, producing hybrids which look intermediate between the
two.
The Carrion Crow is a common resident except in northern
http://www.birdguides.com/html/vidlib/species/Corvus_corone.htm
60-
12 Sep 1999
Two groups of mountain gorillas. One lot lives in Virunga, in the Democratic
http://www.yowiehunters.com/crypto/reports/other_crypto_1.htm
61-
Grus rubicundus, related to the other crane species, particularly the
Australian sarus crane, with which they can interbreed.
http://www.wellingtonzoo.com/animals/animals/birds_and_fish/brolga.html
62-
The BALTIMORE ORIOLE is an example of a taxonomist's nightmare. Its found
throughout eastern
http://listserv.arizona.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0103e&L=birdeast&F=&S=&P=1102
63a and 63b-
"Alder Flycatcher." Although they were nearly indistinguishable even
in the hand, they occupied different habitats and sang different songs. Careful
study demonstrated that they rarely, if ever, interbred. Yet portions of their
ranges overlapped, i.e. they were "sympatric.". Using absence of
hybridization in areas of sympatry as its main criterion, AOU split them into
"Alder Flycatcher" (Empidonax alnorum) and "
Recently, however, some of the most prominent splits have been of
geographically-separated populations. Examples are
http://www.mobirds.org/Ezine/Ornithology101/Ornithology101.htm
[Where is in the last example an evidence of the second generation fertility
test? Here is like going backwards in science]
64-
the domestic pig and the European wild boar are classified as the same species
(Sus scrofa) and freely interbreed.
http://www.americazoo.com/goto/index/mammals/350.htm
European wild hogs and feral hogs interbreed readily, with traits of European
wild hogs apparently being dominant.
http://www.trophy-quest.net/wild_boar_hog_info.htm
In the US there are several populations of these feral swine, from the lowlands
of South Carolina and Florida to the mountains of North Carolina to the
"razorbacks" of Arkansas, to the wild pigs of Texas (and I do not
speak of Javelina) and California. Some of the populations reportedly have been
interbreed with European or "Russian" boar, leading to larger animals
with more typical coloration. http://home.snafu.de/l.moeller/Wild/Wild_Boar.htm
The most recent finding:
Georgia's Hogzilla: "...a hybrid of wild boar and domestic Hampshire pig
that the the Atlanta Journal-Constitution described as "large, perhaps
even record-setting large..."
"Farm-raised hogs, however, have been known to grow to sizes even larger
than that claimed of Hogzilla: Darrell Anderson, CEO of the Lafayette,
Ind.-based National Swine Registry, said farm-raised hogs grow as large as
1,300 pounds and measure as long as 7 feet along the backbone from head to
tail." http://www.snopes.com/photos/animals/hogzilla.asp
And most recently from the AP:
"Super swine was real, experts say (Tuesday, March 22, 2005)" http://www.snopes.com/photos/animals/hogzilla.asp
"...the experts [a team of National Geographic] estimated Hogzilla was
probably only 7 1/2 to 8 feet (2.25 to 2.4 meters) long, and weighed about 800
pounds (360 kilograms)."
"Hogzilla's tusks -- one measuring nearly 18 inches (46 centimeters) and
the other nearly 16 inches (41 centimeters) -- set a new Safari Club
International North American free-range record."
"Holyoak said Hogzilla weighed in at half a ton (500-kilograms) on his
farm scales, and that he personally measured the hog's length at 12 feet (3.6
meters) while the freshly killed beast was dangling by straps from a backhoe.
As with any organic being after death, tissues will decompose and the body will
atrophy, making actual measurements change over time," Holyoak said.
"Have you ever seen a raisin after it was a grape?"
And the previous record was:
"Holyoak said the plantation's previous record was a 695-pound hog shot
several years ago."
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5540839
65-
Savanna and forest elephants interbreed, Science News: Geneticists define new
elephant species [should be 'sub-species']:
http://www.findarticles.com/cf_dls/m1200/10_160/78681649/p1/article.jhtml
The two forms interbreed where forest and ecosystems meet: http://www.wildwatch.com/resources/mammals/elephant.asp
Dwarf African elephants inhabit the forest lowlands and interbreed with the
larger form around the forest edge:
http://www.ifaw.org/ifaw/general/default.aspx?oid=12993
These three elephants can interbreed: http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s798390.htm
Unexpectedly, along the Congo-Uganda border the two species do interbreed: http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s82699.htm
Can African and Asian elephants interbreed?
Yes. A hybrid birth did occur in
http://www.zoo.org/educate/fact_sheets/elephants/elephant3.htm
-----------
In the next categories most typically female hybrids are fertile, while males
sterile:
66-
Domestic cats (Felis catus) crossed with servals (Felis serval) produce hybrids
called
http://www.wlbengals.com/savannah.html
67-
Felis catus crossed with Asian leopard cats (Felis bengalensis) produce hybrids
called
http://www.absolutelybengals.com/pages/bengalhist.html
68-
Felis catus crossed with jungle cats (Felis chaus) produce hybrids called
chausies.
http://oocities.com/savannahcats
69-
Cattle and bison: Domestic cattle (Bos taurus) and American bison (Bison bison)
can be crossed to produce beefalo. Female hybrids are usually fertile, while
males are sterile (Steklenev 1995, 1997).
-------------
The next animals generally produce sterile hybrids, they correspond to
different species, which means that the mule, the hinny, the liger and the
tigon (also called tiglon) can not reproduce themselves in nature 'after their
own kind' (the same can be said of previous examples, like the animals referred
from '66-69', in which the product of a fertile hybrid female reverts to be
member of only one of its parent's real species, never preserving naturally its
heterogeneous 'hybrid' phenotype):
70-
Horse-donkey crosses produce sterile mules. Very rarely, a female mule may be
fertile.
http://www.hamill.co.uk/british_mule_soc/fertile.html
-----------
Kopp E, Mayr B,
Schleger W. Species-specific non-expression of ribosomal RNA genes in a
mammalian hybrid, the mule. Chromosoma 1986;94(5):346-52
"The
expression of nucleolus organizer activity in diploid cells was investigated in
a model system for mammalian hybrids, the horse-ass cross (mule)."
"As a rule we found species-specific non-expression of the horse-derived
NOR chromosomes in the mule, whereas the ass-derived NOR chromosomes were
active."
-----------
Artificial
cloning has been used to reproduce mules: http://www.stnews.org/news_idl_0404.html
-----------
71-
Lion-tigress crosses produce sterile offspring called ligers. Tiger-lioness
crosses, tigons, are more rare. In some cases, female ligers and tigons have
proved to be fertile. http://www.sierrasafarizoo.com/animals/liger.htm
-----------
Other fully
fertile examples:
72-
a Black-bellied Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna autumnalis - BBWD) has been seen at
their site. This South American bird, as far as I can recall, was sighted by a
team at Nylsvlei during BBD. The individual BBWD at TWT does not have a ring,
sometimes carried by ascaped birds. This bird is capable of interbreeding with
Whitefaced and Fulvous Ducks...
The Ruddy Duck (Oxyura jamaicinsis) originating from both America's, has, as
far as I can remember, also established sizable feral breeding populations in
Britain and Spain, and have started to interbreed with local species (I can't
recall which - tell me please), creating a conservation problems. http://birdnet.zarf.com/archive/9801/980127.htm
73-
The once dominant and undoubtedly valuable Biological Species Concept places
emphasis on the ability of individuals to interbreed: forms that can interbreed
and produce fertile offspring are regarded as members of the same species... It
is thus often associated with 'lumping', which is the downgrading of similar
species into subspecies of a single species. A local example of a situation
where application of the Biological Species Concept might be misleading is that
of the recently-discovered narrow hybrid zone between
/////////////
By those references you can see that the two last ones are opposed to
interbreed subspecies because (they argue) the diversity of the parental line
may 'disappear'.
I think that under a strictly rational and controlled interbreeding between
subspecies, instead of the 'disappearance' of the parental lines, we will have
'more diversity'. So it is just question of doing it wisely, don't you think?
That is a straight Mendelian application to preserve the genetic pool of very
endangered species before they become actually extinct and then, nothing else
could be done.
And again, this destroys any 'speciational' fallacy, as we have been dealing
with varieties or subspecies all the time, only.
------------------
And from:
http://www.iscid.org/boards/ubb-get_topic-f-6-t-000488-p-8.html
74- Taken From 'Brainstorms', posted 17. May 2004
All the Canis (domestic or feral) can interbreed and have a fertile offspring, being
all of them members of the same species:
a- Coyotes and wolves can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. In
fact all members of the genus Canis (dogs, wolves, coyotes and jackals) are
interfertile. www.ualberta.ca/~jzgurski/coyote.html
b- Wolves and dogs can interbreed and produce [fertile] offspring.
Wolves can be crossed with any breed of dog. The most common hybrids are wolf
bred with malamute, husky, or German shepherd. Although wolf hybrids can occur
naturally in the wild, this happens very infrequently due to the territorial
nature of the wolf. Most hybrids are the result of deliberate breeding in
captivity. http://www.wolf.org/wolves/learn/add_resource/hybrid.asp
c- [Wolves and dogs] are so closely related that they can interbreed and
produce fertile offspring. One important difference between wolves and domestic
dogs is that dogs can breed twice a year and wolves can only breed once a year.
In captivity, wolves typically live to be about thirteen or fourteen years of
age, and the oldest wolf on record lived to be eighteen years old. In the wild,
however, wolves rarely live past ten years of age, because of disease,
injuries, and parasites. Most wild wolves do not live past five years, although
there is one record of a wild wolf living to be thirteen years of age. www.ualberta.ca/~jzgurski/wwolf.html
d- Three wolf species [again those are NOT 'species' but 'subspecies' or
'varieties' !] (the gray wolf, red wolf, and coyote) are generally recognized,
although there is much local variation within them. http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0852593.html
e- Other living members of the genus Canis are the jackal and the dog.
All Canis species can interbreed, producing fertile offspring; the Eskimos have
interbred wolves and dogs to produce hardy animals for pulling sleds. Taken
from: The
f- Species are usually defined as a population of animals which can only
mate with each other to form fertile offspring.
[D]ogs can interbreed with wolves to form fertile wolf-dog hybrids. This tells
us that dogs are technically not a different species from wolves. There are
many other examples of this. http://dsc.discovery.com/stories/dinos/bbc/howdoweknow/q43.html
g- Wolves, coyotes and domestic dogs are so closely related that they
can interbreed with fertile offspring. J. Elliott. http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/bio99/bio99524.htm
h- The Relationship Between The Wolf And The Domestic Dog. As further
evidence of the wolf and the domestic dog being a single species, wolves and
domestic dogs can also interbreed and produce fully fertile offspring. To deny
this to deny a fact of nature. http://www.bullovedbulldogs.com/sarf.htm
i- Is It A Wolf And What Will It Do? By Elisabeth Duman, BA. Wolf-dog
hybrids continue to grow in popularity. If an animal is much wolf at all, it
cannot be kept as a simple family pet. I hope that you will be able to help
people make educated decisions in keeping these animals safely and humanely. http://www.courteouscanine.com/isitawolf.shtml
j- Siberian Husky / Golden Jackal Cross. Result of a project in
k- Over several generations, the more tractable and useful animals were
kept, each forming a breed: a tamed Northern wolf-dog here, an Asian wolf-dog
there, a jackal-dog in another place, a dingo-dog some place else, and an
African wild dog-dog or coyote-dog in other places and at other times. http://www.api4animals.org/562.htm
Conclusion:
wolves, jackals, dingoes, and coyotes can all interbreed with the domestic dog
and produce fertile offspring.
To
appreciate some of the many varieties of dogs, go to: http://www.planktonik.com/museum/en/mammals/f_dogs.html
http://www.dogbreedinfo.com/abc.htm
To appreciate varieties of wolves, which are interfertile with dogs, go to: http://www.stormpages.com/shadowwolf/grayspecies.html
http://wilk.pentex.pl/forum/viewtopic.php?p=207
///////
75-
Other plants mentioned by Mendel, different than the groups of the ones of
Pisum and of Phaseolus described in Mendel's First and Classic Paper or in his
second and frustrating paper on Hieracium [http://www.esp.org/books/bateson/mendel/facsimile].
Excerpts from Mendel's letters to Nageli:
A- Aquilegia
"The success of the hybridization is evident. The same may be said of the
autumn seedlings of the hybrids Aquilegia canadensis + vulgaris , A. canadensis
+ A. atropurpurea, and A. canadensis + A. wittmaniana Thus far the three
Aquilegia hybrids are suitable"
B- Linaria
"I have obtained luxuriant plants of Linaria vulgaris + L. purpurea",
"Linaria vulgaris may fairly easily be fertilized by the pollen of other
Linaria species; among five attempts made this summer, four were successful.
Among them is the combination with the beautiful L. genistifolia; this hybrid
is reported to grow in the wild around Brunn"
C- Calceolaria
"The same may be said of Calceolaria salicifolia and C. rugosa"
D- Zea
"Hybrids of Zea mays major (with dark red seeds) + Z. mays minor (with
yellow seeds) and of Zea mays major (with dark red seeds) + Zea cuzko (with
white seeds) will develop during the summer"
E-
Mirabilis
"It concerns the opinion of Naudin and Darwin that a single pollen grain
does not suffice for fertilization of the ovule. I used Mirabilis Jalappa for
an experimental plant, as Naudin had done; the result of my experiment is,
however, completely different. From fertilizations with single pollen grains, I
obtained 18 well-developed seeds, and from these an equal number of plants, of
which ten are already in bloom",
"I want to repeat the experiment; and it should also be possible to prove
directly by experiment whether or not two or more pollen grains can participate
simultaneously in the fertilization of the ovule in Mirabilis. According to
Naudin, at least three are needed!",
"The experiment designed to solve the question whether or not a single
pollen grain suffices for fertilization, was repeated with Mirabilis jalappa,
with the same results as last year. Plants obtained from last year's
fertilizations using a single pollen grain cannot be distinguished in any way
from those produced by self-fertilization"
"Under way is another experiment with Mirabilis, designed to find out also
whether two pollen grains may simultaneously participate in
fertilization",
"I have one specimen of the interesting hybrid Mirabilis jalappa + M.
longiflora. A few plants were obtained from the small number of seeds which it
bore last summer; they are, however, still too delicate to stand
transportation".
F- Antirrhinum
"Antirrhinum vulgare + A. rupestre"
G- Lychnis
"About 200 uniform specimens of the hybrid of Lychnis diurna and L.
vespertina",
"Lynchnis diurnal + L. vespertina"
H- Geum
"The hybrid Geum urbanum + rivale deserves special attention",
"It is hoped that Geum urbanum + G. rivale can be included in the group of
suitable plants",
"Several specimens of the hybrid Geum urbanum + G. rivale (from last year's
hybridization) wintered in the greenhouse. Three are now flowering, the others
will follow. Their pollen is fairly well developed, and the plants should be
fertile, just as Gartner states. It seems strange that all the plants now
flowering are of the exceptional type mentioned by Gartner. He says: "Geum
urbano-rivale, mostly with large flowers, like rivale, and only a few specimens
with small yellow flowers like urbanum." In my plants the flowers are
yellow or yellow-orange, and about half the size of those of G. rivale; the
other characters correspond, as far as can be judged at present, to those of G.
intermedium Ehrh... I believe I have good reasons for considering my parental
species pure. I obtained G. urbanum in the environs of the city, where neither
G. rivale, nor any other species of the genus occurs; and I got G. rivale in a
damp mountain meadow, where G. urbanum certainly does not occur. This plant has
all the characteristics of G. rivale; it is being maintained in the garden, and
seedlings have been produced from self-fertilization"
I- Cirsium
"In the projected experiments with species of Cirsium and Hieracium I
shall be entering a field in which your honor [Nageli] possesses the most
extensive knowledge, knowledge that can be gained only through many years of
zealous study, observation, and comparison of the manifold forms of these
genera in their natural habitat... therefore I am turning confidently to your
honor..."
"In Cirsium, the dioeciously blooming arvense was fertilized by oleraceum
and canum. The flowers were protected against visits of insects by coverings of
bolting cloth, this protection appears to be sufficient for Cirsium species.
Furthermore, the fertilization of C. canum and C. lanceolatum by C. oleraceum
was attempted simply by transmission of pollen..."
"Pollen of C. palustre was transferred to one [to one
"late-developing head of a flowering plant of C. praemorsum M. (olerac. +
rivulare)], pollen of C. canum to the other. Viable seeds were obtained from
both, the resulting plants survived the winter in the greenhouse, and are now
developed to a stage at which the success of the hybridization is evident"
"To judge from leaf formation in the young plant, fertilization of Cirsium
canum with C. oleraceum was achieved in the same way last year", "
Some seedlings of C. praemorsum, others of a hybrid (probably in the group C.
canum + palustre and those of a third one, probably C. rivulare + palustre have
survived the winter in the open quite well", "The Cirsium arvense +
C. oleraceum hybrids, sown in the fall, have died during the winter; one plant
of the C. arvense + C. canum hybrid survived"
"I am sending you as promised some hybrids of Hieracium, Cirsium, Geum,
and Linaria which I have obtained"
"Hybrids of Hieracium show, strangely enough, a very different behavior in
the production of their progeny, than do those of Cirsium. Cirsium would be an
excellent experimental plant for the study of variable hybrids, if it required
less space"
J- Verbascum
"By accident one plant of the cross Verbascum phoenicium + V. blattaria
was left in the seed bowl (1864)... This summer (1867) the plant made up for
everything it had missed, for from June to September it flowered continuously,
and produced more than 100 well-formed seeds. It might winter for a third time,
since a complete leaf rosette developed after flowering"
K to R (#s 11-18) - Other names of plants that are mentioned by
Mendel (Ipomoea, Cheiranthus, Veronica, Viola, Potentilla, Carex, Tropaeoleum,
Antirrhinum majus, etc.)
"To study color development in flowers of hybrids, cross-fertilizations
were made last year between varieties of Ipomoea purpurea, Cheiranthus annuus
and Antirrhinum majus. An experiment with hybrids of Tropaeoleum majus + T.
minus (1st generation) must also be mentioned" "For the current year
exploratory experiments with Veronica, Viola, Potentilla, and Carex are
planned. Unfortunately, I have only a small number of species"
http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetics/classical/holdings/m/gm-let.pdf
Adding those at,
least 18 species and their bona fide varieties to the two species and its
subspecies mentioned in his first article: Pisum and Phaseolus we have at least
20 species of plants worked by Mendel in which he was able to demonstrate
interbreeding between their so-called related 'species' that we have seen that
should be only 'varieties' or 'sub-species'.
////////////////////
76-Back
to the weakness in the 'evidence' for 'speciation' (present in all published
papers on the subject), the next is a clear example on the fallibility for the
classification of 'species' based only on phenotype or genotype, without
including the fact of "fertile parents = fertile descendants",
Price TD, Bouvier
MM. The evolution of F1 postzygotic incompatibilities in birds. Evolution Int J
Org Evolution. 2002 Oct;56(10):2083-9. "Among our sample more than half
the crosses between species in the same genus produce fertile hybrids"
"...viable hybrids have been produced between taxa..."
[Note: Evidently,
here the authors indicate that those more than a half of crosses of bird
'species' that they studied, rather should be considered just as 'varieties' or
'subspecies' but not as if being members of different 'species'.]
----------------
77-
The fifteen
isolated subspecies of the Galapagos tortoises certainly correspond to the same
'Species', living today near extinction in at least ten separate islands,
reproductively isolated one from the others; however, when put together they
are able to interbreed and to produces fertile offspring. Their morphlogical
phenotypical differences are many. The same can be said of the other fauna
found in the Galapagos Islands [finches, iguanas (see below), etc.]
===========
78-
Rassmann K.
Evolutionary age of the Galapagos iguanas predates the age of the present
Galapagos islands. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 1997 Apr;7(2):158-72.
"The results
strengthen the hypothesis that extended speciation times in the Galapagos are
possible and provide an estimate of the minimum time inhabited islands of the
archipelago may have existed."
[My comment:
Those iguanas also interbreed, being then the same species; so, the 'dating'
here and in every other 'evolutionary estimate' is totally useless]
"The marine
iguana's cousin, the land iguana eats cactus pads and leafy vegetation and
never ventures toward the sea... Evolutionists suggest that these two species
derived from a common ancestor over ten to twenty million years ago... But we
learned that these two species would interbreed on occasion. The hybrids live
for only seven to eight of the usual forty years, and their eating habits are
strangely intermediate. The hybrids will eat cactus but not leafy vegetation,
and will eat seaweed and algae but only at low tide when they can scramble over
the rocks to get it. They won't enter the water. This level of hybridization
makes it unlikely they are as old as evolutionists suggest." [R. Bohlin on
the book by Jonathan Wells, Icons of Evolution (Washington, DC: Regnery
Publishing 2000), p. 159-175; http://www.probe.org/docs/galapagos.html]
===========
79-
Chimpanzees x
bonobos
Curnoe D, Thorne
A. Number of ancestral human species: a molecular perspective. Homo
2003;53(3):201-24.
"Despite the
remarkable developments in molecular biology over the past three decades,
anthropological genetics has had only limited impact..." "Published
genetic distances between common chimpanzees and bonobos, along with evidence
for interbreeding, suggest they should be assigned to a single species."
My comment: Even
when rightfully, those authors suggest that chimpanzees and bonobos
"should be assigned to a single species", they wrongfully suggest the
aberration of putting chimpanzees also in the 'Homo' category.
We know today
that humans and chimpanzees are members of different species and the possible
forbidden product, like in the case of the mule, should be sterile. The Bible
describes a sexual degeneration with animals in all the nations of the past
that were surrounding Israel. The Neanderthals and all other hominoids may be
hybrid products of such illicit heterogeneous intermingling. We know today that
the Neanderthal (or Neandertal) DNA is not human.
Related links and
comments:
The small amount
of sequence divergence observed in mtDNA from different contemporary human
populations, especially in Europe indicates a relatively recent origin of Homo
sapiens without admixture of ancient Neandertal sequences (Torroni, A., et al,
1994. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 55, 760-776).
Scholz M,
Bachmann L, Nicholson GJ, Bachmann J, Giddings I, Ruschoff-Thale B, Czarnetzki
A, Pusch CM. Genomic differentiation of Neanderthals and anatomically modern
man allows a fossil-DNA-based classification of morphologically
indistinguishable hominid bones. Am J Hum Genet. 2000 Jun;66(6):1927-32.
"When
hybridized with genomic DNA of either human or Neanderthal origin, DNA
extracted from two Neanderthal finds-the Os parietale, from
Warendorf-Neuwarendorf, Germany, and a clavicula, from Krapina, Croatia-was
shown to yield hybridization signals that differ by at least a factor of two
compared to the signals obtained with the use of fossil DNA of an early Homo
sapiens from the Vogelherd cave (Stetten I), Germany." "The genome of
Neanderthals is expected to differ significantly from the genome of
anatomically modern man, because of the contrasting composition of repetitive
DNA. These data support the hypothesis that Neanderthals were not ancestors of
anatomically modern man."
Comparative
differences in the mtDNA between humans and some Neanderthals: http://www.oocities.org/fdocch/compare.htm
The errors in the
calculation of "great antiquity" for Neandertal bones buried side by
side with humans underlies in the dating methodologies used. All
"dating" systems are based in imaginary assumptions of its inventors,
and of course none of them includes in their equation the presence of water
covering all earth, which can even explain the existence of petrified forests
and of the human "bottleneck" discovered by scientists.
I used IDc
(Intelligent Design corruption) to give an account of the existence of virus
and of all the other 'Biological Abnormalities', 'Biological Advers-ities',
etc.: thorns, thistles, venoms, predator behavior, virus, cancer, etc. I can
include here also the existence of Neanderthals, proven by many papers to have
had a DNA and mtDNA that was not human, but a product of IDc (Dr. Custance
calls it 'a degenerative state').
Neanderthals were
living contemporary, side by side with real humans.
This is another
example of a perspective 'leading to research questions otherwise left
unasked', according to Dr. Bohlin, who also have said: 'evolutionists would not
be likely to make such a prediction, since their search is primarily for
apelike ancestors', they usually don't want to hear nothing about human-like
monsters in a degenerative state! (the same can be said of all the other
humanoids-hominids.
The Bible
provides an account of Neandertal-like beings and their origin. http://www.oocities.org/fdocc3/sidebyside.htm
To
Download some numbers of the magazine "Crypto", which explores the
contemporaneous possibility of Neandertal-like beings: http://www.herper.com/crypto
-----------
80-
Cone Snails (Conus)
It has been
estimated that there are 100 unique peptides toxins for each Cone Snail species
with an estimated 50,000 "species" present in the genus. [Editor's
note: most of those 50,000 may only be "varieties" able to interbreed
to produce an array of new beautiful cone shells (some worth upwards of $1000)
and new peptide toxins with possible medical uses]
http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/findings/sept02/snails.html
(pictures included)
-----------
81-
Gasterosteus
(Threespine stickleback)
Schluter D.
Experimental Evidence That Competition Promotes Divergence in Adaptive
Radiation. 1994. Science 266:798-801. [From the Full Text: "I used
interspecific hybridization to increase the frequency of these individuals,
and, therefore, the sensitivity of the test. Hybridization is a valid
manipulation because all previous crosses between closely related freshwater
sticklebacks have not revealed any intrinsic reduction in offspring viability
(refs: McPhail JD, Can J Zool 62:1402 (1985); ibid, 70:361 (1992); Hatfield T
& Schluter D, unpublished). F1 hybrids were raised from artificial
crosses between the Cranby species and the Paxton benthic species (C x B), and
between the Cranby and the Paxton limnetic species (C x L)"]
Grant PR. Ecological Character
Displacement. 1994. Science 266:746-747. [From the Text
(on commenting the previous work): "...to give the experiment a good
chance of working, one extra manipulation had to be made; the frequency of
the extreme forms of the two species was artificially increased, by
hybridization"]
McKinnon JS &
Rundle HD. Speciation in nature: the threespine stickleback model systems.
2002. Trends Ecol. Evol. 17(10):480-488: "Complete viability and
fertility of hybrids is the norm...given the ease with which various
hybrid crosses can be raised in the laboratory Indeed, several studies
have demonstrated that speciation can occur in the absence of genetic
incompatibilities (Ref. Schluter, D. (2001) Ecology and the origin of
species. Trends Ecol. Evol. 16, 372-380)] http://facstaff.uww.edu/mckinnoj/McKinnonRundle2002.pdf
(color pictures included)
My Comment: Here,
the extreme of inconsistency is reached by Schluter et al, as those varieties
of sticklebacks are deliberately deemed as if different 'species', in an
attempt to justify their biased reasoning as 'support' for a non-existent
'Speciation'.Because, if "several studies have demonstrated that
speciation can occur in the absence of genetic incompatibilities" that
means that the topic is variation, just the description of varieties or
sub-species.
-----------
82-
Rhizophora (Mangle)
Parani M., C. S.
Rao, N. Mathan, C. S. Anuratha, K. K. Narayanan, A. Parida, 1997 Molecular
phylogeny of mangroves III: parentage analysis of a Rhizophora hybrid using
random amplified polymorphic DNA and restriction fragment length polymorphism
markers Aquat. Bot 58:165-172.
To see
pictures: http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/marinebio/mangal.html
-----------
83-
Cyprinid fishes:
Dowling T. E., B.
D. DeMarais, 1993 Evolutionary significance of introgressive hybridization in
cyprinid fishes. Nature 362:444-446.
Dowling T. E., W.
R. Hoeh, 1991 The extent of introgression outside the contact zone between Notropis
cornutus and Notropis chrysocephalus (Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Evolution
45:944-95.
Gerber AS,
Tibbets CA, Dowling TE. The role of introgressive hybridization in the
evolution of the Gila robusta complex (Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Evolution Int J
Org Evolution 2001 Oct;55(10):2028-39.
"The impact
of hybridization was significant in upper Colorado River basin populations;
most upper basin fishes sampled exhibited only G. cypha mtDNA haplotypes, with
some individuals exhibiting mtDNA from G. elegans. The complete absence of G.
robusta mtDNA, even in populations of morphologically pure G. robusta,
indicates extensive introgression that predates human influence."
DeMarais BD,
Dowling TE, Douglas ME, Minckley WL, Marsh PC. Origin of Gila seminuda
(Teleostei: Cyprinidae) through introgressive hybridization: implications for
evolution and conservation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1992 Apr 1;89(7):2747-51..
"Morphological
and genetic characters from cyprinid fishes of the genus Gila were examined to
assess a hypothesized hybrid origin of Gila seminuda from the Virgin River,
Arizona-Nevada-Utah. The presumed parents, Gila robusta robusta and Gila
elegans, are clearly differentiated from one another based on morphology,
allozymes, and mtDNA haplotypes. G. seminuda is morphologically intermediate and
polymorphic at allozyme loci diagnostic for the parental species. Restriction
endonuclease analysis of mtDNA showed G. seminuda nearly identical to G.
elegans. These results support an origin of the bisexual taxon G. seminuda
through introgressive hybridization. The Gila population in the Moapa River,
Nevada, also appears to be of hybrid origin and is considered a distinctive
population of G. seminuda."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=1557380
To see
Cyprinids (these algae eating fishes) photos: http://www.aquatic-gardeners.org/saephotos.html
http://www.aquariacentral.com/species/cyprinids.shtml
-----------
84-
Armeria (Plumbaginaceae):
Fuertes Aguilar
J, Rossello JA, Nieto Feliner G. Nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) concerted
evolution in natural and artificial hybrids of Armeria (Plumbaginaceae). Mol
Ecol. 1999 Aug;8(8):1341-6.
"Nuclear
ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences from
artificial hybrids and backcrosses between Armeria villosa ssp. longiaristata
and A. colorata were studied... F1 artificial hybrids show the expected pattern
of additive polymorphisms for five of the six variable sites as estimated from
direct sequences. However, homogenization of polymorphism is already observed
in the F2, and is biased towards A. colorata except for one site. In
backcrosses, an expected tendency towards homogenization of polymorphic sites
in the direction of the recurrent parent is observed for five sites... Our
findings are relevant to interpreting phylogeographic patterns involving gene
flow and are also consistent with the hypothesis of a hybrid origin of A.
villosa ssp. carratracensis."
To see
some Armeria: http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/imaxxplb.htm
http://www.pharmakobotanik.de/gallery/gal-plbg.htm
-----------
85-
Xenopus:
Leister DE, Dawid IB. Mitochondrial
ribosomal proteins in Xenopus laevis/X. mulleri [muelleri] interspecific
hybrids. J Mol Biol. 1975 Jul 25;96(1):119-23.
Honjo, T., and R.
H. Reeder. 1973. Preferential transcription of Xenopus laevis ribosomal RNA in
interspecific hybrids between Xenopus laevis and Xenopus mulleri [muelleri]. J.
Mol. Biol. 80:217-228.
To see
some Xenopus [near the end, both]: http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/photos/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_47.html
http://www.livingunderworld.org/anura/database/pipidae
-----------
86-
Bears:
Adaptations
within the Bear Family: A Contribution to the Debate about the Limits of
Variation. By David J. Tyler, Ph.D.
"Brown and
Grizzly Bears have numerous sub-species. Gray's Mammalian Hybrids (1972) has
the following: the Peninsula Giant Bear (Ursus arctos gyas), the Grizzly Bear
(Ursus arctos horriblis), the Kodiak Bear or Alaskan Brown Bear (Ursus arctos
middendorffi), the Manchurian Grizzly Bear (Ursus arctos lasiotus), the Fishing
Bear (Ursus arctos beringianus), the Red Bear (Ursus arctos isabellinus), the
Syrian Bear (Ursus arctos syriacus) and the Sitka Islands Bear (Ursus arctos
sitkensis). The significant observation is that several hybrids have been
reported: these sub-species readily interbreed. Of much greater interest is the
hybridisation data at the inter-species and inter-genus levels. Gray has
documented the several hybrids."
http://www.creationresearch.org/creation_matters/97/cm9709.html
To see
some Bears: http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/pictures/Ursus.html
http://www.photovault.com/Link/Animals/Mammals/uBears/AMUVolume01.html
-----------
87-
Crinoids:
Now, I want to
present you an article appeared in the magazine Smithsonian, Jan. 2005, pp.
35-36. By: Erik Stokstad. Title: "Caught in the Act! Ancient Sea Life
Evolves". Subtitle: "Over millions of years, delicate crinoids
developed spikes and armor that thwarted hungry predators". And in the
text we read: "a new study of changes in crinoid anatomy over millions of
years has provided unusual evidence of evolution in action" "a
surprisingly rich tale of evolution's cunning responses to long-vanished predators."
In page 35 we have a picture of a fossilized crinoid (fossil number S8561) and
at its right side we have a picture of a living one, the "feather
star".
To see how those
crinoid fossils look like:
http://www.artofstone.com/crinoid.html
To see
online some 18 pictures of those animals called crinoids: http://www.divegallery.com/crinoids.htm
In this last link
we read: "There are nearly 550 species of comatulid crinoids
worldwide".
My comment again
is that evolutionism is selling at a very high price plus a lot of time that
which is only the simple and natural variability within animals. It is like
presenting you with the bones of a fossilized Chihuahua-like dog at the side of
a living mastiff and then concluding that the mastiff "evolved" from
the fossilized one. Any varieties of dogs are able to interbreed producing
fertile offspring, as well as with wolves, red wolves, jackals, coyotes, dingoes,
etc., so all of them are only varieties of the same kind of organism in
disregard of how the 'specialists' classify them. So, in the very same words
written in Smithsonian by Erik Stokstad, evolutionism is just selling "a
surprisingly rich tale".
Time after time I
have seen that 'varieties' are been deliberately confounded with 'species' to
sell the tale of evolutionism, and the same can be said of thousands, if not
millions, of organisms.
The 'scientific'
estimate is that there are 1.7 Millions of 'species' in the world today. If we
study in detail whose of those are only varieties of the same organisms that
number will dramatically shrink. How 'scientific' is that estimate? It can be
seen in the next words:
"A
clear-cut, logistically feasible, biological-species concept is not likely to
be used in general classification within this taxon until much more information
is available on the biology and ecology of the species within the various
communities."
http://www.charonia.com/charonia/essays.htm
Evolutionists are
quick to denounce the reduction in the number of species-specific genes in
humans, remaining silent to the proportional shrinking in the estimates of the
actual number of human genes, remaining silent also to the most dramatic
reduction in the number of 'species' if the F1 fertility tests were the
standard. For the human genes the betting process started above 150,000, and
then the last bet indicates that there may only be from 20,000 to 25,000 genes.
We read in the next Abstract, "Notably, the human genome seems to encode
only 20,000-25,000 protein-coding genes."
International
Human Genome Sequencing Consortium. Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the
human genome. Nature 2004 Oct 21;431(7011):931-45.
But, that's the learning
process, to do miscalculations, to rectify them and to keep working. My comment
is that evolutionism is using to its theoretical advantage the human ignorance
"until much more information is available".
But when much
more information be available, evolutionism then is going to try to twist the
new data within their own rhetoric and philosophy of life, deceiving some
unaware people.
As I wrote
before: "I dream in a time in which you could be able to freely do good
research, and publish it, no matter if you deeply reject the materialistic and
biased assumptions, or I must say "impositions" of evolutionism and
darwinism."
Don't you think,
dear reader, that if alternative views are allowed in scientific research, more
and putatively, better ways of progress should be easier and faster? However,
you all have seen how biased the scientific community has become, even today
(Mar 2005), to the extreme to support only one point of view (inside the
Laboratory, the Indexed Journals and in School), even if that is wrong and even
if that includes coercion.
Etc.
-----------
88-
Salmon:
"Despite our
findings of rapid adaptation and reproductive isolation, I don't necessarily
presume these two [varieties of] salmon populations will evolve into what would
be recognized as separate species"
University of Massachusetts' Andrew Hendry
http://www.umass.edu/newsoffice/archive/2000/101900salmon.html
Example
contributed by Stuart Harris, from:
-----------
89-
Hawaiian Silversword Alliance:
Hybrids:
Argyroxiphium x Dubautia, Argyroxiphium x Wilkesia, Dubautia x Wilkesia; and
within: Argyroxiphium and Dubautia.
Example
contributed by Teleologist, from:
ARN Posting Board. I.E. Topic: "Atheism's
Trojan Horse The Manifesto of Scientific Hoax"
-----------
90-
Quails
Coturnix japonica (Japanese Quail) x Coturnix coturnix (European Common Quail)
"...these quail will interbreed (Harper 1986) and produce fertile hybrids
(Johnsgard 1988)..."
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Coturnix_japonica.html
"the taxonomic status of C. coturnix and C. japonica has not been settled
(Johnsgard, 1988; Alderton, 1992)."
Refs.
Alderton, D. 1992. The Atlas of Quails. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications.
Harper, D. 1986. Pet Birds for Home and Garden. London: Salamander Books Ltd.
Johnsgard, P. 1988. The Quails, Partridges, and Francolins of the World.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Coturnix_coturnix.html
In Paul Hess' (Birding, P. 246. May-Jun 2005) we read:
"...where the ranges of California Quail and Gambel's Quail overlap and
the two species regularly interbreed."
Figure: "California and Gambel's Quails hybridize where their ranges
overlap, with the mixed progeny exhibiting considerable variation. A
morphological gradient from west to east in the hybrid zone corresponds to a
gradient of environmental factors."
Original Article:
Gee, J.M. 2003. How a hybrid zone is maintained: behavioral mechanisms of
interbreeding between California and Gambel's Quail (Callipepla californica and
C. gambelii). Evolution 57 (10): 2407-2415.
http://animalscience.ucdavis.edu/laboratory/millam/pdfs/ev2003.pdf
"...interbreeding may ensue if genetic compatability is greater between
mixed-species pairs than between parental-type pairs of kin... Interbreeding
California quail and Gambel's quail (C. californica and C. gambelii) provide an
ideal situation in which to understand the behavioral mechanisms of mating and
ultimate factors that contribute to the maintenance of hybrid pairings... Late
breeding or sex-ratio biases may limit conspecific mate availability and cause
interbreeding (Grant and Grant 1997a)... I tested whether interbreeding occurs
due to the absence of species recognition, the limited availability of
conspecific mates, or the limited availability of nonkinconspecific mates...
Interbreeding may occur due to limited numbers of potential mates within the
covey... The tendency for Callipepla californica and C. gambelii individuals
[is] to pair assortatively in captivity but interbreed in the wild... This
study provides evidence that mating behaviors specific to local ecological and
demographic conditions maintain hybrid zones when genetic penalties to
interbreeding are small."
Ref. Grant, P. R., and B. R. Grant. 1997a. Hybridization, sexual imprinting,
and mate choice. Am. Nat. 149:1-28.
In the Grant's conference at "Focus on Origins" P. R. Grant declared
repetitively: "hybridization occurs widely in birds", which means,
"we have blatantly misclassified varieties of birds as if those were members
of different species" (smile)
http://www.americanbirding.org/pubs/birding/archives/vol37no3p246to249.pdf
"...unpublished picture of a hybrid between a Scaled Quail and a Gambel's
Quail by Louis Agassiz Fuertes. (In: Grouse and quails of North America. Paul
A. Johnsgard. 1973. Lincoln, Univ. Nebraska Press. xx q- 553 pp.)"
http://www.americanbirding.org/pubs/birding/archives/vol37no3p246to249.pdf
-----------
91-
In the same previous pdf, we read about the next ref. Inter-island variation in
the Mascarene White-eye Zosterops borbonica. Frank B. Gill. 1973. A.O.U.
Ornithol. Monogr. No. 12, 66 p.:
"Five morphotypes are discussed: a gray morph of the central highlands and
slopes, Z. b. edwardnewtoni Hartlaub in Storer and Gill 1966; a gray-headed
brown morph of the northern and northeastern lowlands, Z. b. borbonica (Gmelin)
in that earlier paper; a brown-headed brown morph of the westcentral highland
forests Z. b. alopekion Storer and Gill; a paler, brown-headed brown morph of
the dry western lowlands, Z. b. xerophila Storer and Gill; and a brown-naped
brown morph of the southern lowlands and slopes, with no scientific name
assigned. These morphs interbreed to varying extents, with topographical
factors acting to limit or prevent gene flow among them."
-----------
92-
Dr. Beling
illustrated the Gulls:
http://www.iscid.org/boards/ubb-get_topic-f-6-t-000553-p-2.html
Main link:
Hybrid Gulls Breeding in
Belgium.
By Peter Adriaens.
"Mixed breeding in western Europe"
"All three species may interbreed [Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus
argenteus), Lesser Black-backed Gull (Larus fuscus graellsii/intermedius),
Yellow-legged Gulls (Larus michahellis)], as has been observed quite regularly
in western Europe."
Check now some Gull "hybrid UFOs" (smile):
"Presumed Larus hyperboreus x L. argentatus. First winter/summer. Medio
May 2002. Fuglevika, Farsund, Vest-Agder, Norway":
http://cyberbirding.uib.no/gull/ufo/hybrid_1w_03.php
More Gulls at:
http://fdocc.blogspot.com/2005/10/gull-variation.html
-----------
93-
Interbreeding in Shorebirds
Angus Wilson wrote, "Careful scrutiny of shorebirds around the world
suggests that hybridization between Charadriiformes is not quite as
exceptional as it was once thought. Here is a listing of know or well
justified hybrid combinations. I'd appreciate hearing about other combinations
or appropriate articles." Then, we have produced the next list, based
first on Dennis Paulson (pp. 10-12, see below) and secondly on the list
presented by Angus Wilson, who also provided the comments and references within
the entries:
1. Black-necked Stilt (Himantopus mexicanus) x American Avocet
(Recurvirostra americana)
Wilson wrote, "Some times referred to as an 'Avistilt' or 'Stavocet', this
is a fairly regular combination.
- Principe W. L., Jr. (1977) A hybrid Amerrican Avocet x Black-necked Stilt.
Condor 79: 128-129.
2. White Rumped Sandpiper (Calidris fuscicollis) x Buff-Breasted
Sandpiper (Tryngites subruficollis)
3. Baird's Sandpiper (Calidris bairdii) x Buff-Breasted Sandpiper
(Tryngites subruficollis)
4. American Oystercatcher (Haematopus palliatus) x Black Oystercatcher
(Haematopus bachmani)
"A relatively common occurrence on the Pacific Coast".
- Jehl, J. R., Jr. (1985) Hybridization annd evolution of oystercatchers on the
Pacific Coast of Baja California. Neotropical Ornithology, A.O.U. monograph 36:
484-504.
5. Dunlin (Calidris alpina) x Purple Sandpiper (Calidris maritima)
6. White Rumped Sandpiper (Calidris fuscicollis) x Pectoral Sandpiper
(Calidris melanotus)
7. Little Stint (Calidris minuta) x Temminck's Stint (Calidris
temminckii)
- Jonsson, L. (1996) Mystery stint at Grooote Keeten: first known hybrid between
Little and Temminck’s Stint? Dutch Birding 18:24-28.
8. Dunlin x White-rumped Sandpiper (Calidris alpina x Calidris
fuscicollis).
- McLaughlin K. A. , and A. Wormington (20000) An apparent Dunlin x White-rumped
Sandpiper hybrid. Ontario Birds 18(1):8-12.
Angus Wilson. Mystery Calidris
Sandpiper from Florida. Appendix: Known Shorebird Hybrid Combinations.
2005.
9. Common Sandpiper x Green Sandpiper (Tringa hypoleucos x Tringa
ochropus).
10. Curlew Sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea) x Pectoral Sandpiper
(Calidris melanotus) = "Cox's Sandpiper" ("Calidris
paramelanotos")
For this entry, Angus Wilson wrote and documented: "First described from
Australia in 1982. Genetic evidence established that Cox's Sandpiper is not
a distinct species, but is a hybrid between Curlew Sandpiper (Calidris
ferruginea) and Pectoral Sandpiper (Calidris melanotos)."
- Christidis, L., K. Davies, M. Westerman,, P. D. Christian, and R. Schodde.
(1996) Molecular assessment of the taxonomic status of Cox's Sandpiper. Condor
98: 459-463.
11. Curlew Sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea) x Sharp-tailed Sandpiper
(Calidris acuminata) = "Cooper's Sandpiper" ("Calidris
cooperi")
A. Wilson wrote that this one "was described by Baird in 1858 based on a
specimen collected on Long Island, New York, U.S.A. in May 1833. A similar bird
was collected in Stockton, New South Wales, Australia, in Mar 1981. Evidence
suggests this is a Curlew Sandpiper x Sharp-tailed Sandpiper (C. ferruginea
x C. acuminata)."
- Cox, J. B. (1990a) The enigmatic Cooper''s and Cox's Sandpiper. Dutch Birding
12: 53-64.
- Cox, J. B. (1990b) The measurements of CCooper's Sandpiper and the occurrence
of a similar bird in Australia. South Austral. Orn. 30: 169-181.
12. New Zealand Black Stilt x Pied Stilt (Himantopus novaezelandiae x
Himantopus leucocephalus).
- Pierce, R. J. (1984) Plumage, morphologyy and hybridisation of New Zealand
Stilts Himantopus spp. Notornis 31: 106-130
Main Reference:
- Paulson, D. Shorebirds of North America.. The Photographic Guide. Princeton
Univ. Press. 2005, 361 p.
-----------
////////////////////
I have reviewed
the more than 700 abstracts related to 'speciation' plus 'evolution'. After
seeking on them, I find no evidence of any kind of natural 'speciation' going
on on earth today or at any other time. In the best of the cases they mean
'sub-speciation', and that is the real change or variability within true
species, many of them have been posted in 'Literature Review':
http://www.iscid.org/boards/ubb-get_topic-f-18-t-000034.html
Some examples are
provided here:
A-
Rundle HD. Divergent environments and population bottlenecks fail to generate
premating isolation in Drosophila pseudoobscura. Evolution Int J Org Evolution 2003
Nov;57(11):2557-65.
"Bottlenecks alone did not generate any premating isolation, despite an
experimental design that was conducive to bottleneck-induced speciation"
B- Moya A, Galiana A, Ayala FJ. Founder-effect speciation theory:
failure of experimental corroboration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1995 Apr
25;92(9):3983-6.
"Our results provide no support for the theories proposing that new
species are very likely to appear as by-products of founder events"
C- Doi et al. A locus for female discrimination behavior causing sexual
isolation in Drosophila. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001 Jun 5;98(12):6714-9.
"The genetic basis of sexual isolation that contributes to speciation is
one of the unsolved questions in evolutionary biology."
D- Schilthuizen M. Dualism and conflicts in understanding speciation.
Bioessays 2000 Dec;22(12):1134-41.
"Speciation is a central but elusive issue in evolutionary biology"
"Over the past sixty years, the subject has been studied within a
framework conceived by Ernst Mayr and Theodosius Dobzhansky... The more
prominent debates in speciation (i.e., the species definition,
sympatry/allopatry, and the role of reinforcement) all derive from an inherent
conflict between the "isolation" theory and Darwin's "selection"
view on species and speciation (in which disruptive selection is crucial). New
data, mainly from field ecology, molecular population genetics, laboratory
studies with Drosophila and computer analysis, all suggest that the isolation
theory may no longer be the most desirable vantage point from which to explore
speciation."
E- Inomata N, Yamazaki T. Evolution of nucleotide substitutions and gene
regulation in the amylase multigenes in Drosophila kikkawai and its sibling
species. Mol Biol Evol. 2000 Apr;17(4):601-15.
" we do not know whether there was any evolutionary relationship between
the two."
F- Nuzhdin SV, Reiwitch SG. Are the same genes responsible for intra-
and interspecific variability for sex comb tooth number in Drosophila? Heredity
2000 Jan;84 ( Pt 1):97-102.
"One of the most interesting unresolved puzzles is the relationship
between intraspecific variability in morphological traits and their
interspecific divergence" ""the vast majority of intraspecific variants
could be deleterious mutations... In this case intraspecific variation would
not ultimately generate interspecific trait differences." "Whether or
not these effects result from the same genes requires further
examination."
G- Grant PR, Grant BR. Genetics and the origin of bird species. Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997 Jul 22;94(15):7768-75.
"Ideas about the genetics of speciation in general trace back to
Dobzhansky who worked with Drosophila. These ideas are an insufficient guide
for reconstructing speciation in birds " "The genetic basis of the
origin of postmating isolating factors affecting the early development of
embryos (viability) and reproductive physiology (sterility) is almost
completely unknown"
H- Ballard et al. Divergence of mitochondrial dna is not corroborated by
nuclear dna, morphology, or behavior in Drosophila simulans. Evolution Int J
Org Evolution 2002 Mar;56(3):527-45.
"Evidence presented in this study suggests that mtDNA is not a good
indicator of organismal subdivision in D. simulans. Furthermore, there is no
evidence to suggest that Wolbachia causes any reduction in nuclear gene flow in
this species"
I- Betancourt AJ, Presgraves DC. Linkage limits the power of natural
selection in Drosophila. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002 Oct 15;99(21):13616-20.
"Together these findings suggest that linkage limits the rate and degree
of adaptation even in recombining genomes."
J- Presgraves DC, Balagopalan L, Abmayr SM, Orr HA. Adaptive evolution
drives divergence of a hybrid inviability gene between two species of
Drosophila. Nature 2003 Jun 12;423(6941):715-9 [Comment in: Nature 2003 Jun
12;423(6941):699-700.]
"Almost nothing is known about the genes involved in such hybrid
incompatibilities or the evolutionary forces that drive their divergence."
K- Sainz A, Wilder JA, Wolf M, Hollocher H. Drosophila melanogaster and
D. simulans rescue strains produce fit offspring, despite divergent
centromere-specific histone alleles. Heredity 2003 Jul;91(1):28-35.
"A recent theory proposes that the independent evolution of
centromere-binding proteins in isolated populations may be a universal cause of
speciation among eukaryotes" "we demonstrate that divergent cid
alleles are not sufficient to cause inviability or female sterility in hybrid
crosses." "cid... is not a speciation gene.""
L- Naisbit RE, Jiggins CD, Linares M, Salazar C, Mallet J. Hybrid
sterility, Haldane's rule and speciation in Heliconius cydno and H. melpomene.
Genetics 2002 Aug;161(4):1517-26.
"Most genetic studies of Haldane's rule, in which hybrid sterility or
inviability affects the heterogametic sex preferentially, have focused on
Drosophila. It therefore remains unclear..."
M- Barbash DA, Siino DF, Tarone AM, Roote J. A rapidly evolving
MYB-related protein causes species isolation in Drosophila. Proc Natl Acad Sci
U S A 2003 Apr 29;100(9):5302-7.
"Matings among different species of animals or plants often result in
sterile or lethal hybrids"
[My comment: To
include 'sterility' in the 'equation' of possibilities for a speculative
'speciation' was 'as brilliant' as the baseless theory of 'spontaneous
generation'.]
---------------
When I found that
the finches of Galapagos were able to interbreed and to produce fertile
offspring, that opened my eyes to see the flaws in the weak definitions of 'species'
used by evolutionists to support their unfounded claims. Those finches are the
very same that were used by Darwin as his inspiration for his theory on
evolution. You can see how the Grant's (the discoverers of that) struggle to
try to fit their findings within the wrong theory of 'speciation', the main
'evidence' for the theories of 'evolution'.
And if there was
and there is no transformism or 'transmutation' of one organism into another,
there was no 'molecular evolution' leading to a gradual differentiation of
species through millennia, other two flawed 'evolutionary' claims.
And that, that is the central issue of the matter.
--------------
If we now review older references available Online on the Internet, we
can read the next:
A- William Thomas
Brande. A dictionary of science, literature & art. ed. by W.T. Brande,
assisted by Joseph Cauvin. The various departments by eminent literary and
scientific gentlement. 1788-1866, ed. New York, Harper & brothers, 1853.
In page 573 http://www.hti.umich.edu/t/text/gifcvtdir/ajd7013.0001.001/00000581.tifs.gif
we read:
HYBRID. (Gr. hubris, a mule). The produce of a female plant
or animal which has been impregnated by a male of a different variety, species,
or genus.
The most common hybrids
are those which result from the connexion of different varieties of the same
species, as the produce of the wild boar and domestic sow; the endless
modifications which result from analogous interbreeding from varieties of the
rose and other ornamental or useful plants are familiar examples of the
principles among vegetables.
Specifical hybrids have
been produced from the artificial fertilization by Kolreuter of the Nicotiana
rustica with the pollen of the Nicotiana parriculata; and Schiek has
demonstrated by numerous observations, that a multitude of plants produce
specifical hybrids in a state of nature.
Hybrids from different
species of insects, under similar circumstances, have been obtained; as from
the connexion of Papilio jurtina with P. janira, of Chrysomela aenea with Chr.
alni, of Phalangium cornutum with Ph. opilio. Specifical hybrids have been
obtained in the class of fishes by artificial impregnation between the Cyprinus
carpio and Cypr. carassias, and between Cypr. carpio and Cypr. gibelio. In
birds, hybrids have been bred between the gold finch and canary, between the
reeves and the common pheasant - the pheasant and the common fowl - the swan
(Anas alar, L.) and the goose (Anas anser, L.) - between the Tetrao tetrix and
Tetrao urogallus - between the Corvus corone and Corvus cornix, &c. Among
Mammals, hybrids have been produced between the lion and tiger, the dog and
wolf, the dog and jackal, the dog and fox, the goat and ibex, the horse and
zebra, the zebra and ass, and the horse and ass; the produce of the two last
species, as it is the most common and useful of hybrids, being termed, par
excellence, "the mule."
But a fruitful connexion
is not only possible between individuals of different varieties or of distinct
species, but also occasionally between animals of different genera. Generical
hybrids have thus resulted from the union of the goat (Capra hircus) with the
antelope (Antilope rupricapra), of the stag with the cow, and of the bull with
the sheep, notwithstanding their disparity of size. Among reptiles, between the
toad (Bufo) and the frog (Rana); among insects, between Cantharis melanura and
Elaster niger, and between Melalontha agricola and Cetonia hirta. Experiments
alone can determine the amount of affinity beyond which fertilization is
impracticable, but at present it seems to be restricted to individuals
belonging to genera of the same natural group
The tendency of all the
natural phenomena relating to hybridity is to prevent its inking place, and
when it has occurred, to arrest the propagation of varieties so produced, and
to limit their generative powers, so as to admit only of reversion to the
original specific forms.
The individuals of
different species which produce a hybrid offspring do not voluntarily copulate.
The salacious mare must be blindfolded, or she will not receive the ass. The
stallion refuses to mount the she ass if a mare be in sight. Hunter states
that, being desirous "to have a she-wolf lined by some dog, she would not
allow any dog to come near her, but was held while a greyhound lined her; while
in conjunction she remained pretty quiet, but when at liberty endeavoured to
fly at the dog." Buffon reared puppies of the wolf, fox, and dog together,
to familiarize them with each other; but when they were in heat, the females of
each species exhibited an insurmountable repugnance to the male of the others,
and mortal combats ensued instead of fertile union between the different sexes
of the different species. (Annales du Museum, t. xii., p. 119.)
In a few exceptional
cases, serving only to establish the rule of their infertility, specifical
hybrids have been known to propagate together, and produce a degenerate
intermediate race, which soon becomes extinct: it more commonly happens that a
hybrid is sterile, or propagates only with an individual of pure breed.
On the assumption that a
hybrid produced by two individuals of undoubtedly distinct species is sterile,
experiments have been made on the breeding powers of hybrids, to determine the
nature of doubtful species. Thus Hunter believed that he had obtained absolute
proof of the jackal being a dog, and to have equally made out the wolf to be of
the same species; and he then proceeds to speculate whether the wolf is from
the jackal, or the jackal from the wolf; for he had obtained pups from the
connexion of a female hybrid jackal-dog and a male terrier, and between a
female hybrid dog-wolf and a male greyhound; and he adds, in respect of the
latter fact, that "it would have equally proved the same fact if she had
been lined either by a wolf, a dog, or one of the males of her own
litter." (Hunter's Animal OEconomy, by Owen, 8vo, p. 323.). But this
assertion, that the fertility of a hybrid with an individual of a pure breed
proves the fact of the identity [as one true kind of organism] of two supposed
distinct species equally with the production of offspring from the connexion of
hybrid with hybrid, cannot be admitted. To prove the identity [as one true kind
of organism] of two supposed distinct species, on the assumption that the
fertility of the hybrids from the two gives the proof required, it should be
shown that such hybrids are fertile among themselves, and capable of
propagating indefinitely an intermediate variety. Hunter's celebrated
experiments, however, only proved that two nearly allied species ['varieties']
will produce a hybrid offspring, and that such hybrid may be impregnated by an individual
of the pure breed; but this fact illustrates the general law by which the
reversion of the hybrid to the pure breed is provided for; while, on the other
hand, the intermixture of distinct species ['varieties'] is guarded against by
the aversion of two specifically different individuals to sexual union.
B- E. G. Storke.
Domestic and rural affairs. The family, farm and gardens, and the domestic
animals. From the latest and best authorities. Ed. by E. G. Storke, 1811-1879.
Auburn, N. Y., The Auburn publishing company, 1859.
In page 268 http://www.hti.umich.edu/t/text/gifcvtdir/aje2058.0001.001/0784b268.tifs.gif
we read:
"In America the
ordinary gray goose of Europe is very common; but this bird does not thrive
there so well as in Europe; hence many prefer the Canada goose, which is as
familiar, and its equal in other points. This species will breed with the
common goose; and it is asserted that the hybrid progeny is far superior in the
flavor and sapidity of its flesh to the unmixed progeny of the common goose.
Buffon, in whose time the Canada goose was kept in a domestic state in France
says: " Within these few years many hundreds have inhabited the great
canal at Versailles, where they breed familiarly with the swans." That is,
we suppose, interbreed with the swans, an instance of which has not come under
our own notice; the intermediate position, however, of this species renders the
fact probable."
C- Robert Jennings
(1824-1893). Sheep, swine, and poultry. 170 p. Philadelphia, J. E. Potter and
company. 1864.
In page 33 http://www.hti.umich.edu/t/text/gifcvtdir/agl2644.0001.001/00000035.tifs.gif
we read:
"The term Merino,
it must be remembered, is but the general appellation of a breed, comprising
several varieties, presenting essential points of difference in size, form,
quality and quantity of wool. These families have generally been merged, by
interbreeding, in the United States and other countries which have received the
race from Spain"
D- Geomys tuza (or
G. hispidus) x Geomys bursarius
Smithsonian Institution. Exploration of the Colorado
River of the West and its tributaries. Explored in 1869, 1870, 1871, and 1872,
under the direction of the secretary of the Smithsonian institution. [Report of
J. W. Powell to Prof. Joseph Henry] 1875.
In pages 232-233 http://www.hti.umich.edu/t/text/gifcvtdir/afk4571.0001.001/03840236.tifs.gif
http://www.hti.umich.edu/t/text/gifcvtdir/afk4571.0001.001/03850237.tifs.gif
we read:
"...it might be
held by some that the present [Geomys tuza] is merely a localized race of G.
bursarius [Geomys bursarius]; and I should be the last one to dispute such
statement of an abstract fact. This Geomys is, of course, an off-shoot of the
bursarius stock; and, for that matter, so are all the rest of the
"species" modified descendants of some one stock. It would be only
shifting the question a peg to require that the fact should affect the
nomenclature. A "permanent variety" is a contradiction in terms. This
is the case: Here is a set of individuals differing thus-and-thus (as above
described) from another set. The difference is slight, but constant; there is
no intergradation, for the simple reason that the two sets of animals now
occupy different geographical areas, are completely isolated from each other,
and thus cut off from interbreeding; or, in other words, from reproducing
offspring in which the characters of both parents are blended. It is quite
possible that, in their blind movements under the ground, the two may come
together and interbreed; but we must wait for this to occur, and be attested by
intergrading specimens, before we need hesitate to describe G. tuza as a
"distinct species". "
E- Aberdevine x Canary
The American Cyclopaedia. 16 v. NY. D. Appleton and
company. 1873-76.
In page 23 http://www.hti.umich.edu/t/text/gifcvtdir/agf3694.00xx.001/00000039.tifs.gif
we read:
Aberdevine (Carduelis
spinus), also called the siskin, a small European song bird, which breeds in
the north of Europe, and visits England, France, and Germany during the winter
season only. It somewhat resembles the green variety of the canary bird, with
which it is so far connected that it will interbreed with it in confinement,
when the produce is what are known by bird fanciers as mules.
F- Henry Alleyne
Nicholson. A manual of zoology for the use of students. With a general
introduction on the principles of zoology. 1844-1899. Second edition revised
and considerably enlarged. New York, D. Appleton and Co., 1876.
In page 583 http://www.hti.umich.edu/t/text/gifcvtdir/ajp2204.0001.001/00000607.tifs.gif
we read:
"It is worth while
remembering, however, all our varieties of dogs are capable of interbreeding;
and there is a strong probability that the Wolf is the parent stock of at least
some of our domestic breeds. The Dog, in fact, will interbreed with both the
Wolf [Canis lupus] and the Jackal [Canis aureus]"
G- The Globe
encyclopaedia of universal information. Edited by John M. Ross. 6 v. Boston,
Estes & Lauriat, 1876-79.
In page 419 http://www.hti.umich.edu/t/text/gifcvtdir/ajd6892.0002.001/00000426.tifs.gif
we read:
Dog (Canis).
"Another equally important subject is the question of the fertility or
sterility of the progeny of the wolf and Dog when interbreed. We know with
certainty that all our existing breeds of dogs can interbreed; and also that
the Dog will interbreed with the wolf and the jackal, although the exact extent
of the fertility between the wolf and Dogs breed has not been determined... Le
Roy instances a Dog whose great-grandfather was a wolf... The entire subject of
the origin of the breeds or races of dogs becomes further complicated when we
reflect that naturalists are by no means clear among themselves as to the
characters which are to be deemed purely "specific" in their nature,
and those which, on the contrary, are only of "varietal" value.
Until, therefore, decisive information be obtained as to what characters constitute
a true "species", and what are those of a mere "variety",
the exact relationships of the dogs must remain a matter of conjecture and
dispute."
In page 451 http://www.hti.umich.edu/t/text/gifcvtdir/ajd6892.0003.001/00000458.tifs.gif
we read
"...the progeny of
a male horse and female ass is a hybrid named the Hinny (q. v.), that of the
mare and the he-ass, a Hybrid named the Mule (q. v.) here the distinctly
"specific" nature of the horse and ass is assumed, and in point of
fact, is generally admitted... The male ass and mare produce a stronger Hybrid,
and one more likely to be fertile or to produce young [to produce an offspring
either of a real horse or mare or a real ass, but certainly not producing more
sterile hybrids (mules)], than the offspring of the stallion and the female
ass."
"In determining the
nature of any animal presumed to be a Hybrid, it is evident the chief test must
rest with the determination of the truly and distinct specific nature of the
parents"
"The definition of
a species of animals or plants is by no means an easy matter, since the ideas
of naturalists regarding species have greatly altered within the past few
years. A species is not now regarded as the invariable and stable quantity
which the older zoologists and botanists defined it to be; the modern tendency
in biological speculation is to regard each species as capable of
"varying" to a greater or less extent. A species thus produces "varieties",
and when distinct "varieties" interbreed, the progeny are not named
hybrids but "mongrels". To understand the difficulties which beset
the determination of hybrids, it is necessary to bear in mind that each species
may be regarded from two points of view: (1) in reference to structure, that
is, "morphologically", and (2) in reference to functions, that is,
"physiologically". It is clearly the physiological idea of species
which is concerned in the production of hybrids, since the fertility of two
forms is a matter to be decided from a functional or physiological point of
view."
In page 452 http://www.hti.umich.edu/t/text/gifcvtdir/ajd6892.0003.001/00000463.tifs.gif
we read
"Interbreeding the
sheep and goat [sterile product]... The he-goat united with the ewe produces a
physiologically more perfect Hybrid than the resulting from the union of the
ram with the she-goat, the greatest physiological perfection of the former
Hybrid being evinced by its capability of producing young [to produce an
offspring either of a real ram or ewe or a real goat, but certainly not
producing more sterile hybrids]"
"Other cases of
hybrids have been proved to occur indiscriminately between the horse, ass, and
zebra."
"The dog breeds
freely with the wolf, and the resulting hybrids are by no means sterile"
"The offspring of
the swan and goose are fertile."
"pheasants have
been successfully bred with allied species."
"Rabbits and hares
are perfectly prolific inter se"
"In plants the
production of first hybrids takes place very frequently, but the degree of
fertility which these hybrids may exhibit has not been definitely ascertained.
The plant species is if anything more elastic in its nature than the animal
species, in so far at least as the production of first crosses are
concerned."
"among fishes
hybrids have been artificially produced by fertilizing the eggs of one species
with male fluid from another."
[Fragments of this
section have been taken from: "THE view commonly entertained by
naturalists is that species, when intercrossed, have been specially endowed
with sterility, in order to prevent their confusion. This view certainly seems
at first highly probable, for species living together could hardly have been
kept distinct had they been capable of freely crossing... Although I know of
hardly any thoroughly well-authenticated cases of perfectly fertile hybrid
animals, I have reason to believe that the hybrids from Cervulus vaginalis and
C. reevesii, and from Phasianus colchicus with P. torquatus are perfectly
fertile. M. Quatrefages states that the hybrids from certain moths [bombyx,
cynthia, and arrindia]. were proved in Paris to be fertile inter se for eight
generations. It has lately been asserted that two such distinct species as the
hare and rabbit, when they can be got to breed together, produce offspring
which are highly fertile when crossed with one of the parent-species. The
hybrids from the common and Chinese geese (A. cygnoides), species which are so
different that they are generally ranked in distinct genera, have often bred in
this country with either pure parent, and in one single instance they have bred
inter se. This was effected by Mr. Eyton, who raised two hybrids from the same
parents, but from different hatches; and from these two birds he raised no less
than eight hybrids (grandchildren of the pure geese) from one nest. In India,
however, these cross-bred geese must be far more fertile; for I am assured by
two eminently capable judges, namely Mr. Blyth and Capt. Hutton, that whole
flocks of these crossed geese are kept in various parts of the country; and as
they are kept for profit, where neither pure parent-species exists, they must
certainly be highly or perfectly fertile." [From: Darwin's "On the
Origin of Species" Chapter IX. Hybridism] http://human-nature.com/darwin/origin/chap9.htm]
In page 596 http://www.hti.umich.edu/t/text/gifcvtdir/ajd6892.0001.001/00000606.tifs.gif
we read:
Canary Bird. "Bird
allied to the Finches (q. v.), and generally included in the sub-family of
Fringillinae or true finches. The familiar domesticated canary differs in color
and other respects from the wild birds, which are greyish or greenish yellow in
huse. Domestication has tended to improve the general appearance and the song-notes
of these birds, although Heineker says their song, even in the wild state, is
very clear and beautiful. They derive their name from their inhabiting the
Canary Islands... They were first brought to Europe about the beginning of the
16th c. The inhabitants of the Tyrol, and other parts of the Continent, are
largely engaged in breeding and in training these and other birds to sing. The
canary will interbreed with other species of finches, and the hybrid progeny or
"mules" frequently possess excellent voices."
H- Pigs x Hogs
Swine - Characteristics
of Breeds, &c. By Sanford Howard. In: Annual report of the Secretary of the
State Board of Agriculture and Annual report of the Experimental station.
Michigan. State Dept. of Agriculture. 1880, 1882/83. Biennial, 1880/82.
Lansing, Mich.
In pages 167-168,
Appendix http://www.hti.umich.edu/t/text/gifcvtdir/aaf7919.0005.001/00000373.tifs.gif
http://www.hti.umich.edu/t/text/gifcvtdir/aaf7919.0005.001/00000374.tifs.gif
we read:
"Geological
researches have proved that the Hog is one of the most ancient mammiferous
animals. His fossilized bones have been found in various places, associated
with those of the Mastodon, Dinotherium, and other animals long since
extinct... in the uncultivated parts of Europe, Asia and Africa, the wild hog
has existed from time immemorial, and no less than eight species are enumerated
by naturalists as inhabiting those countries at the present day...
Experiments,-particularly those made under the direction of the Zoological
Society of London, and the Society of Acclimation of Paris, - have shown that
several of the wild species will interbreed, that the wild species will breed
with all domestic varieties, and that the offspring of all these crosses will
readily amalgamate - the progeny continuing to be prolific."
I- Jaegers:
Stercorarius parasiticus & Stercorarius longicaudutus
Natural history survey
of Illinois. State Laboratory of Natural History. Pub. by authority of the
State Legislature. Springfield, Ill., 1889.
In page 217 http://www.hti.umich.edu/t/text/gifcvtdir/baa9328.0002.001/00000267.tifs.gif
we read:
"...possibly they
may interbreed to a slight extent, and thus produce hybrids. The Parasitic
Jaeger is known as an Illinois bird only on account of its occasional
occurrence on Lake Michigan during winter. Its habits are not obviously
different from those of the Pomarine Jaeger [Stercorarius pomarinus]."
Ictiobus and Carpoides
In page 67 http://www.hti.umich.edu/t/text/gifcvtdir/baa9328.0003.001/00000239.tifs.gif
we read:
"The name
"buffalo-fish" refers to the bull-like hump at the nape in old
individuals. The relationships of these fishes with the carp are remote. The
view, not uncommon among fishermen, that carp and buffalo interbreed is not
supported by any facts in our knowledge, and is probably based solely on the
superficial resemblance of the buffalo and the carp in the form of the body and
of the dorsal fin."
--------------
My
last related captures:
a-
The Species Problem. Ann Gibbons. Science
273(5281):1501 (Sep., 1996)
" "The definition of species is a constant
thorn in the side of progress in speciation research," says University of British Columbia ecologist Dolph Schluter, who studies
speciation in what may or may not be two separate species of stickleback
fish."
"By the leading textbook definition, the
sticklebacks probably don't count as two species. The two groups of fish
interbreed occasionally and produce viable offspring, which disqualifies them
from species status under a strict interpretation of the "biological
species" concept "
"Individual pintail and mallard ducks, for
example, can mate to produce offspring, the individuals don't do well
enough to establish a new group, so the two parent populations stay distinct
and are usually recognized as separate species."
"[Ernst Mayr's concept of] reproductive isolation
is a kind of mystical definition, in that you know it when it's
absolutely complete, but actually there are plenty of examples of species
that do hybridize in the wild," says evolutionary biologist James
Mallet at University College in London. Coyotes interbreed with
wolves and dogs, blue whales interbreed with fin whales, and many
species of Protozoa,
lower Metazoa,
and plants do as well. "Are we going to say those
[interbreeders] aren't species?" asks Mallet.
" [evolutionary] scientists would still like
to winnow the definitional diversity, so that when researchers such
as Schluter publish on stickleback speciation, others won't voice doubts
that he was looking at separate species in the first place. "Perhaps
the best we can do is to agree to disagree in a rational manner" and
agree on a limited set of concepts, says entomologist Stewart Berlocher of
the University of
Illinois, Urbana-Champaing"
From out of the square: "The Grants observed cases
when a G.
scandens father died and his sons
subsequently overheard a male G. fortis singing. They learned his song and ended up attracting and mating with
G. fortis females."
And the same happened with their daughters! They also learned the "new
song."
Figure legend: "One species or two? These
sticklebacks may be separate species - or not, depending on the species
definition"
See also:
1- Hybridization of Bird Species. Peter R. Grant; B.
Rosemary Grant. Science 256(5054):193-197 (Apr., 1992).
2- Hybridization of Darwin's Finches on Isla Daphne
Major, Galapagos. Peter R. Grant. Philosophical Transactions:
Biological Sciences 340(1291):127-139 (Apr., 1993).
3- Speciation and Hybridization in Island Birds. Peter
R. Grant; B. Rosemary Grant. Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences.
351(1341):765-772, Evolution on Islands (Jun., 1996).
b-a
On the Many Origins of Species. Ann
Gibbons. Science 273(5281):1496-1499 (Sep., 1996).
"...the apple and hawthorn flies [and
the blueberry fly, three varieties of maggots, Rhagoletis]... were
interbreeding with one another .. they can mate and produce viable
offspring when brought together in the lab ... Population genetics models
show that it takes very little interbreeding to erase differences between
two populations, such as the apple maggots and hawthorn flies."
b-b
Amazonian Diversity: A River Doesn't Run Through It.
Virginia Morell. Science 273(5281):1496-1497 (Sep., 1996).
"... in On the Origin of Species, Charles Darwin
actually wrote very little about how species originate ...phenomenon that
occurs within a single territory, the formation of hybrids - which have often
been dismissed as the "mistakes"... - ... may play a much bigger role
in the establishment of new taxa than has been previously believed... Also two
sister species of monkey-flowers (Mimulus lewisii and M.
cardinalis) in the lab easily produce
fertile hybrids.
From the squared article: "For the tamarins,
Wallace's river theory appears to have been on target. At the [river] Jurua's
mouth and widest points, where the barriers to interbreeding should be
greatest, there are two distinct subspecies of saddle-back tamarins. At the
Jurua's narrow headwaters, however, the two interbreed... But the rodents and
marsupials... instead of diverging across the river, as do the tamarins at the
river mouth... were separated genetically into upriver and downriver lineages.
Eleven of the 17 species we sampled show this kind of divergence", says
Patton [who] speculated that the uplift of the arch separated the small mammal
pupulations [which] began accumulating distinctive genetic changes. Later, as
the Andes began to erode, the Amazonian sub-basins filled in, forming today's
vast, flat basin. No longer divided, the mammals have come into contact again,
although Patton is not sure if they are interbreeding: "That question will
have to wait for nuclear DNA data" Patton's team is heading back to the
field this summer, to collect the small mammals along another tributary of the
Amazon." [My comment: Here again, no words about fertile offspring].
c-
Do the Fowler's Toad and the American Toad Interbreed? Richard
Deckert. Science 45(1153):113-114 (Feb., 1917).
"In any large collection of both species, where
both occur together, there are individuals which seem to combine the external
characteristics of both species. In the study collection of the American Museum of Natural History, New York City, there are, for instance, a
number of toads which at first glance would be identified as Bufo
americanus. They have the large kidney
shaped parotids, divergent cranial crests, spotted belly of B.
americanus, but also the short,
abrupt profile, proportionally narrow head, and much finer texture of skin,
especially that of the belly, of B. fowleri. The color pattern alone can not always be
relied upon, as B. americanus
often has the narrow median pale line, the distinct black spots arranged in
longitudinal rows, sometimes confluent, and the peculiar greenish gray ground
color, of B. fowleri, and vice
versa, B. fowleri has sometimes the reddish brown ground
color, with indistinct vertebral streak and but few scattered black spots and
spotted undersides of B. americanus. All this, in conjunction with Mr. H. A. Allard's notes and
observations, would lead one to believe that both species are closely related,
and that they possibly interbreed occasionally, these forms with the
characteristic marks, etc., of both species representing the hybrids."
[Then, there is a detailed description of the characteristics of each one of
them both]
Richard Deckert, from the N. Y. Zoological Park. NY.
On commenting a communication under "Discussion and Correspondence"
on Science pages 463 and 464, of Sept. 29, 1916, as
regards the song of Bufo fowleri
Putn.
d-a
Hybrids Consummate Species Invasion. Wade
Roush. Science 277(5324):316-317 (Jul., 1997).
" biologists at the University of Notre Dame in Indiana are finding that the local crayfish are having their own
effect on the invader [crayfish], as the two species produce a new population
of vigorous hybrids. The finding is a surprise, researchers say, because
ecologists often expect animal hybrids to be sterile, unable to play more than
a bit part in species invasions. But at the Annual Evolution and Natural
History meetings here [*], William Perry, a graduate student in the labs of
ecologist David Lodge and biologist Jeff Feder, described molecular studies
showing that hybrids of Kentucky native Orconectes rusticus, or the rusty crayfish, and a native
crayfish, O. propinquus (the
blue crayfish), are indeed fertile. Other work by Perry, Lodge, and Feder suggests that these hybrids
are outcompeting both natives and invaders. The rusty crayfish, it
appears, is taking over by assimilation. Researchers noticed 2 decades ago
that some Wisconsin crustaceans are intermediate in color and in the size of
various body parts between the larger rusty crayfish - which first appeared in
northern lakes in the 1960s - and the blue crayfish. That suggested to Lodge
and his colleagues that invading and local species sometimes interbreed
[however,] the extent of hybridization remained unclear, and
in any case, hybrids were assumed to be less important than other
species-replacement mechanisms. But when Perry collected specimens
from some Wisconsin lakes and analyzed enzymes that serve as distinctive
species markers, he found that extensive hybridization is under way between
rusty and blue crayfish. Further comparisons revealed that backcrosses
between hybrids and rusty crayfish were nearly as common as first-generation
hybrids, indicating that hybrids are fertile and that hey tend to mate with
rusty crayfish rather than with each other. Together, the first
generation hybrids and backcrosses accounted for 30 % of the crayfish in one
lake. The apparent prowess of the hybrids may be speeding the invasion.
When Perry put rusty and blue crayfish in tanks with similarly sized hybrids,
the hybrids beat both species in competition for food - such as insects and
aquatic plants - and for shelters under rock piles. They are actually
more competitive than the invader," says Perry." We read in the
article that there are 340 crayfish species in North America, but we can see
now that all of them may be only varieties.
From the figure: Sleeping with the enemy. Female
rusty crayfish (on bottom) courts local male (Photo credits: W. Perry).
Ref.
* Joint meetings of the Society for the Study of Evolution, the American Society of Naturalists, and the Society of Systematic
Biologists, Boulder, Colorado, 14-18
June.
d-b
Cryptic Intercontinental Hybridization in Daphnia (Crustacea): The Ghost of
Introductions past. Derek J. Taylor; Paul D. N. Hebert. Proceedings: Biological Sciences 254(1340):163-168 (Nov., 1993).
"... an allozyme analysis comparing populations
of the common lacustrine cladoceran Daphnia galeata from North America
and Europe. Four populations from the lower Lauretian
Great Lakes were genetically intermediate between North American and European
populations. This geographic pattern of genetic variation suggests that the
introduction of European D. galeata has gone unnoticed, and the extensive
hybridization with native Daphnia [D. g. mendotae] has
resulted [Recombinant genotypes involving diagnostic alleles were present in
mixed populations, showing that the F1
generation is fertile]... aquatic taxa seem particularly vulnerable to the
infusion of alien genes. For instance, the introductions of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus
mykiss, in North America have resulted
in hybridization and partial replacement of the native cutthroat trout, Oncorhynchus
clarki (Allendorf & Leary
1988). Similarly, hybridization involving introduced Pecos pupfish, Cyprinodon
pecoensis, in Texas and New Mexico (Wilde & Echelle 1992) and
introduced guppies, Poecilia reticulata in Trinidad (Shaw et
al. 1992) has rapidly eroded gene
combination of native populations ... [furthermore,] heterozygote
excesses involving alleles that Taylor & Hebert (1993) suggested were introgressed
[reticulated] from D. rosea to D. g. mendotae.
If a hybrid is defined as an individual of mixed subspecies ancestry
(i.e. clones that possess combinations of diagnostic alleles) then
intercontinental hybrids are clearly very successful, as they constituted
90-100 % of the swarms in the four 'mixed' lakes. The balance of the
individuals in such lakes was either D. g. mendotae or advanced generation hybrids, but pure D.
g. galeata was not detected in any of the North American samples ... interspecific
hybrids have been detected between D. galeata and five other species (Wolf & Mort 1986; Hebert et al. 1989; Taylor & Hebert 1992; D. J.
Taylor, unpublished results). Heterozygote excesses at diagnostic loci and
hybrid success may also be due to the increased hybrid fitness relative to the
parent subspecies. Previous investigations of Daphnia have linked hybrid success both to
differential use of the environment and to hybrid vigour (Weider & Stich 1992; Taylor &
Hebert 1993). The rarity and relative ecological equivalence of the parent
taxa in this study suggest that hybrid vigour may be important. Indeed Hebert
et al. (1982) provided
experimental evidence that laboratory-produced clones of intercontinental Daphnia
magna hybrids were more fit than
parent clones under conditions of thermal and osmotic stress. These authors also predicted that such
hybrids would be successful if introduced into disturbed lakes because clonal
reproduction would be rapid and perpetual. This scenario may have been
realized with Daphnia hybrids
in lakes of the present study ... heterozygotes in Lake Erie often represent
clones of hybrid origin ... taxonomic confusion may have created an underestimate
of invasions by alien taxa that are morphologically and ecologically similar to
native taxa... It is well documented that hybrid swarms resulting from
introduced taxa often replace or deplete populations of native congeners
(see, for example, Abbott 1992; Wilde & Echelle 1992)."
Some Refs.
Abbott RJ. 1992. Plant invasions, interspecific
hybridization and the evolution of new plant taxa. Trends. Ecol. Evol. 7, 401-405.
Allendorf FW & Leary RF. 1988.
Hebert PDN, Ferrari DC & Crease TJ. 1982.
Heterosis in Daphnia, a reassessment. Am. Nat. 119, 427-434.
Hebert PDN, Schwartz SS & Hrbacek J. 1989.
Patterns of genotypic diversity in Czechoslovakian Daphnia.
Heredity 62, 207-216.
Shaw PW, Carvalho GR, Seghers BH & Magurran AE.
1992. Genetic consequences of an artificial introduction of guppies (Poecilia reticulata) in N. Trinidad. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 248, 111-116.
Taylor DJ & Hebert PDN. 1992. Daphnia galeata mendotae as a cryptic species complex with interspecific hybrids. Limnol.
Ocenogr. 37, 658-665.
Taylor DJ & Hebert PDN. 1993. Habitat dependent
hybrid parentage and differential introgression between neighboringly sympatric
Daphnia species. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
U.S.A. 90, 7079-7083.
Taylor DJ & Hebert PDN. A reapraisal of phenotypic
variation in Daphnia galeata
mendotae: the role of interspecific
hybridization. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. (In the press.)
Weider LJ & Stich HB. 1992. Spatial and temporal
heterogeneity of Daphnia in Lake Constance; intra- and interspecific
comparisons. Limnol. Oceanogr. 37,
1327-1334.
Wilde GR & Echelle AA. 1992. Genetic status of
Pecos pupfish populations after establishment of a hybrid swarm involving an
introduced congener. Trans. Am.
Fish. Soc. 121, 277-286.
Wolf HG & Mort MA. 1986. Inter-specific
hybridization underlies phenotypic variability in Daphnia
populations. Oecologia 68,
507-511.
e-
Discontinuous Variation and the Origin of Species. D. T.
MacDougal. Science 21(536):540-543 (Apr., 1905).
D. T. MacDougal, from the New York Botanical Garden also submitted it to the Journal Torreya 5:1-6 (Jan. 1905)
"As a matter of fact no phase of evolutionary
science is as badly in need of investigation as that which concerns the effects
of close- and cross-breeding... To be able to bring the causes that are
operative in the formation and structural expression of qualities within the
range of experimental investigation, would be a triumph worthy the best effort
of the naturalist; in that it would give us the power to give new positions to
qualities and thus to produce new organisms, its importance would rank well
with that of any biological achievement of the last half [XIX] century."
f-
A New Color Variety of the Guinea-Pig. W. E.
Castle. Science 28(712):250-252 (Aug., 1908).
Castle is in the Zoological laboratory, Harvard
University.
"This is a perfectly normal Mendelian result,
both qualitative and quantitative, and confirms in the most complete manner the
hypothesis of an independent pattern factor. For, can a more severe test of
the hypothesis be conceived than that by its application one should produce a
wholly unknown variety?"
g-
The Origin of Varieties in Domesticated Species. W. J.
Spillman (USDA). Science 28(712):252-254 (Aug., 1908).
"Now we have a simple, rational explanation,
which any one can put to the test. We are able to predict the production of new
varieties, and to produce them. We must not, of course, in our exuberance,
conclude that the powers of the hybridizer know no limits. The result under
consideration consists, after all, only in the making of new combinations of
unit characters, but it is much to know that these units exist and that all
conceivable combinations of them are ordinarily capable of production. This
valuable knowledge we owe to the discoverer and to the rediscoverers of Mendel's
law."
"... the art of the breeder, who would naturally
be attracted by new types that crop out (which occurs when heterozygotes are
mated) would seize these forms and establish races from them ... That these
race peculiarities are, generally speaking, recessive to the wild form is
well established... But that these peculiarities may have originated ages ago
in the wild form, and been transmitted almost unnoticed, has not hitherto been
suggested... [and those] peculiarities... are not greatly in need of a theory
of "saltatory change" to explain their abundant development in
domesticated species."
h-
The Material Basis of Evolution. Sewall Wright. The Scientific Monthly 53(2):165-170 (Aug., 1941).
"[R. Goldschmidt in his book The Material
Basis of Evolution. Yale Univ.
Press. 1940 declared]:
"Microevolution within the species proceeds by the accumulation of
micromutations and occupation of available ecological niches by the pre-adapted
mutants. Microevolution, especially geographic variation, adapts the species
to the different conditions existing in the available range of distribution.
Microevolution does not lead beyond the confines of the species and the typical
products of microevolution, the geographical races, are not incipient species.
There is no such category as incipient species" ... the observed
discontinuity of species and higher categories can not be explained by
these processes without postulating an unreasonable amount of extinction of
intermediates... it is inconceivable that mutations of protozoan genes could
furnish enough material for the evolution of higher animals, even granting
duplication ... subspecies are not ordinarily incipient species and there
is usually marked discontinuity between species, occurring without any
necessary extinction of contemporary intermediates... the "bridgeless
gap" between species... is crucial for his theory ... Goldschmidt...
decides that the criterion for a good species is demonstrated physiologic inter-sterility
or hybrid sterility, in contrast with failure to interbreed which may be due
merely to psychologic causes. Thus he unites into one "Rassenkreis" two species of deer mice, Peromyscus
leucopus and P. gossypinus, which hybridize rarely if ever in nature, where their ranges
overlap, but which have been sown by Dice and Blossom to produce fertile
hybrids in the laboratory. He does not, however, refer to the existence of fertile
hybrids from crosses between bison and cattle and between pigeons and doves,
which would relegate accepted genera and families to the level of subspecies by
this criterion. Later in the book indeed he recognizes that "good"
species (of Lepidoptera) may produce fertile hybrids ...
[Goldschmidt anticipated that] gene mutations are merely highly localized
changes in pattern... [then S. Wright presents the next example:] A
relatively recent example seems to be found in the history of the Drepanids of the Hawaiian Islands (an endemic family of birds with 18
highly diversified genera and 40 species, presumably tracing to a pair or flock
of stray migrants of an American species)... "
i-
Insect Mimicry and the Darwinian
Theory of Natural Selection. E. B. Poulton. The Scientific Monthly.
21(1):19-25 (Jul., 1925).
"The fine old naturalist, H. W. J. Burchell,
writing more than a hundred years ago of his travels in the interior of South
Africa, described a grasshopper which exactly resembled a stone and also fleshy
plants of the Karoo which were hidden in the same way... [he wrote:] "the
harmony with which they have been adapted by the Creator to each other and to
the situations in which they are found" Mendelian heredity does actually
operate in this and other mimetic species, the most complete evidence being
that obtained by Mr. J. C. F. Fryer by his breeding experiments on Papilio polytes. This
species in Ceylon, where the experiments were conducted, has three forms of
female, one like the male and two resembling other swallowtails which belong to
a distasteful group. The Mendelian relationship was found to exist between
these three females [and the same happens with P. dardanus, with Pseudacraeas like
in eurytus in Uganda, and with sybilla [where]
the mimic can interbreed with another unchanged North American white
admiral, producing an intermediate hybrid - an experiment successfully carried
out by Mr. W. L. W. Field]."
John T. Gulick, a Contributor to
Evolutionary Thought. Addison Gulick. The Scientific Monthly
18(1):83-91 (Jan., 1924).
"Hugh Miller's "Footprints of the Creator"... was a presentation of the main
outline facts of paleontology, together with an exposition of the principal
theories of evolution previous to Darwin, and an argument intended to refute
evolutionary doctrines... The conviction had grown up in his [JT Gulick's] mind
that written upon the very form and structure of these Hawaiian shells (Achatinella cone snails) was a marvelous self-revelation from the hand of the
Creator Himself. and that if we could but learn the alphabet we might read from
them the story of his method of creation... The very numerous species of this
beautiful group are quite diverse in size, shape and shell texture, and are
besides decorated with brilliant hues of green, pink, red, brown, black, straw
and porcelain white, laid on in variegated patterns of spiral bads and flame
marks in laboratory they will eat liberally of almost anything that has the
right physical consistency - banana peel, for example, or even wet paper... The
most noteworthy spot is perhaps the north west wall of Nuuanu Valley, a short
distance back of Honolulu, where C. Montague Cooke has studied the close
localization of 25 color varieties of Achatinella vulpina in the different parts of a collecting belt
that extends only about one mile, with a width of 100 to 400 yards. In general
every grove has a considerable variety of color patterns, and some variability
in size, shape and texture. Neighboring groves reduplicate a share of these patterns,
but are likely to introduce some new note... no one can say categorically,
"These two forms are varieties of
one species, but those two forms are two distinct species." [two
distinct "good" species ("the concept of "good" species" is used here by AG and by TD
elsewhere as an evocation of the ancient biology)] In his own naming of species
he [JT Gulick] gave different names to any forms that seemed to differ with a fair degree of constancy... [however, the
fact of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring is ignored by Gulick]. The
information gained in the last quarter century regarding laws of heredity has
thrown these early observations into a somewhat different perspective... when
Gulick observed in Manoa Valley the two contrasted forms, Achatinella
johnsoni, with its incisive and
reasonably constant color pattern of very dark and light spiral bands, and Achatinella
stewartii, in which the board ground
color of buff or brownish green is only interrupted by one narrow line of
darker pigment, it was impossible for him to consider them the same kind of
snail... But collectors on the grounds to-day know that wherever [Achatinella] johnsoni is found, it lives together with [Achatinella] stewartii as a single indivisible population... the student of evolution... must approve of the systematist's
action in denying to [Achatinella] johnsoni even the
dignity of a variety in the taxonomic sense... Many of Gulick's "species" are nothing more nor less
than outspoken color forms which a person might perhaps develop into "pure
lines" by laboratory methods, but which do not exist in nature as
self-maintaining populations, and very likely never did. The genetic
formulae of none of these forms have ever been worked out through experimental
breeding, but if this is ever done, the formulae for color and patter
inheritance will probably be very complex ...so many of Gulick's old
"species" are now called "varieties," "mutants,"
"color forms," etc. [HA Pilsbry, "Manual of
Conchology," Vol. 22]... in no two colonies did this tendency [to change
their average characteristics] lead in exactly the same direction. Where
great numbers interbreed as a single population there might be many such
tendencies represented, but a large share of them would be neutralized by the
intercrossing of opposite traits... a big compact population does not
quickly change the average of its characteristics, while isolated colonies
numbering only a few individuals apiece have an unlimited opportunity to
blossom forth into any novel form towards which their unstable heredity may
trend [this] inherent tendency to vary progressively in sundry directions
almost without limit, a tendency that is universal among living creatures, but
is generally held in check by free intermingling. This led Gulick to place great
emphasis upon every form of isolation or prevention of mingling ... as for
heredity and variation, so little was known at the date of his [Gulick's]
writing [of his book "Evolution, Racial and Habitudinal"] - that
he judged it much the soundest plan to leave their principles practically
un-discussed... Mendelism interested him intensely, but he felt that it
comprised a research field for the younger generation rather than a topic for
his own discussion... It was in a spirit of loyal reverence for the Great
Creator that he [Gulick] sought to learn something of the process of
creation... As a missionary his reputation as a constructive scientist...
won for him a degree of respectful attention from the highly educated Japanese
that they would otherwise seldom give to a religious teacher... he [Gulick]
never lost the sense of harmony between scientific truth and religion, and he
inspired many other men with the same sense of harmony."
k-
Nitrogen Fixation: Research Efforts
Intensify. Jean L. Marx. Science 185(4146):132-136 (Jul., 1974).
"... mutants of such free-living bacteria as Klebsiella pneumoniae or Azotobacter vinelandii that lack glutamine
synthetase are incapable of synthesizing nitrogenase. When the mutants acquire
the glutamine synthetase genes as a result of conjugation with Escherichia coli, they can
again make nitrogenase. (Conjugation
is a bacterial mating process in which DNA is transferred from one organism to
another) For example, Postgate and Dixon transferred nif
genes from K. pneumoniae to E.
coli by conjugation. The nif
genes were expressed in E. coli,
conferring on these bacteria the capacity to fix nitrogen
... [moreover] control genes, in addition to structural genes for the
enzyme proteins, were transferred to E. coli Dunican found that nif genes could be transferred on a plasmid
from R. trifolii to K.
aerogenes. As a result, the K.
aerogenes gained the capacity to
fix nitrogen."
Cichlid Fish Diversity
Threatened by Eutrophication That Curbs Sexual Selection. Ole Seehausen;
Jacques J. M. van Alphen; Frans Witte. Science 277(5333):1808-1811
(Sep., 1997).
"Cichlid fish species of Lake Victoria can
interbreed without loss of fertility... Dull fish coloration, few color
morphs, and low species diversity are found in areas that have become turbid as
a result of recent eutrophication. Lake Victoria... had until recently at
least 500 species of haplochromine cichlids... [derived] from a single
ancestral species."
Young Biologists: Europe's Rising Stars, Viewed from
America. Jeremy Cherfas. Science 256(5056):469-471 (Apr., 1992).
"Nick Barton. Colloquial Serbo-Croat... A
reader at Edinburgh University...
[who, being] 36, spent last summer tramping around the Yugoslav countryside...
A key place to look is a "hybrid
zone," where closely related species meet and may interbreed... In the
past, Barton has studied animals as diverse as an Alpine grasshopper and, in
Central America, Peter's tent-making bar. His publications led to an approach
from a Polish scientist relating his work on two species of Bombina
- the fire-bellied toad - in Eastern
Europe and to the start of a joint project. B. variegata breeds in short-lived puddles and develops
very rapidly. B.
bombina prefers proper ponds and grows
more slowly. But the two interbreed. [J.C.]"
m-b
Mechanisms Maintaining Species Differentiation
Predator-Mediated Selection in a Bombina Hybrid Zone. Loeske E. B. Kruuk; Jason S.
Gilchrist. Proceedings: Biological Sciences 264(1378):105-110 (Jan., 1997).
"Despite many morphological, life history and
biochemical differences, the two species [the fire-bellied toad Bombina bombina and the yellow-bellied toad B. variegata] interbreed
within the region of overlap and produce viable, fertile hybrids resulting in a
stable hybrid zone usually less than 10 km wide (Szymura 1993, and
references therein ...Traits characteristic of either Bombina species
are in strong statistical association (linkage disequilibrium) within hybrid
populations (MacCallum 1994)"
Ref.
MacCallum C. 1994. Adaptation and habitat preference
in a hybrid zone between Bombina
bombina and Bombina variegata. PhD thesis, U. of Edinburgh.
Species Questions in Modern Human Origins. Roger
Lewin. Science 243(4899):1666-1667 (Mar., 1989).
"[Terry Harrison of New York University told Science...]
"if you skin the 20 or so species of Cercopithecus monkeys, you'd be hard-pressed to identify
different species from their bones" [however, all those Cercopithecus may be just different varieties or races, so the problem is in the mistaken human
reasoning of considering them as different 'species', i.e.,] a cautionary tale of a different sort
comes from two species of baboon, Papio anubis and Papio hamadryas, which live in overlapping territories in
Ethiopia. "These species interbreed quite freely," says Clifford
Jolly, of New York University.
The offspring, which are fertile, are intermediate in anatomy and behavior
between the parental species" ... species as different as these
breed and produce fertile hybrids..."
Of Bears, Conservation Genetics, and the Value of Time
Travel. Svante Paabo. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 97(4): 1320-1321 (Feb., 2000).
"Sumatran and Bornean orangutans that,
after their mitochondrial sequences and minisatellite allele frequencies were
found to be substantially different, were proposed to be two species (15, 16),
although they produce fertile offspring. As a result, "hybrids"
are now not allowed to reproduce in captivity and long-time relationships
between captive animals have been broken up... it is argued that
"evolutionary significant units" and "management units"
defined by monophyly of mitochondrial sequences and differences in allele
frequencies between populations, respectively (13), should not be allowed to interbreed
either in captivity or as a result of wildlife management measures (e.g. ref.
9). Obviously, the idea of regarding "genetic purity" of "subspecies"
or "stocks" as a value in itself is contrary to the idea that
genetic variation should in itself be a good thing for the survival of a
population... three supposed "subspecies" of chimpanzees... have been
promoted as separate entities on the basis of geographic location and
mitochondrial sequences although they cannot be distinguished morphologically
and behaviorally, and their nuclear sequences fail to fall into monophyletic
groups (14)."
Refs.
(9) Waits LP, Talbot SL, Ward RH & Shields GF
(1998) Cons. Biol. 12, 408-417.
(13) Moritz C (1994) Trends. Ecol. Evol. 9, 373-375.
(14) Kacssmann H, Wiebe V & Paabo S (1999) Science
286, 1159-1162.
(15) Xu X & Arnason U (1996) J. Mol. Evol. 43, 431-437.
(16) Zhi L, Karesh WB, Janczewski DN, Frazier-Taylor
H, Sajuthi D, Gombek F, Andau M, Martenson JS & O'Brien SJ (1996) Curr. Biol. 6, 1326-1336.
o-b
Bureaucratic Mischief: Recognizing Endangered Species
and Subspecies. Stephen J. O'Brien; Ernst Mayr. Science 251(4998):1187-1188
(Mar., 1991).
"inadequate taxonomy, and the periodic occurrence
of hybridization between species and subspecies have led to confusion,
conflict... In some cases the molecular genetic results contradicted previous
ideas about species integrity or taxonomic distinctions that were based on
phenotypic (morphological) descriptions... The few remaining panthers (~50)
living in southern Florida show significant physiological and reproductive
impairments that are likely the consequence of inbreeding depression... The
genetic advantages of introducing some additional genetic material into a
population suffering from inbreeding would have been comforting except for one
detail. The opinions from the Solicitor's
Office of the Departament of
the Interior (which is the counsel of
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
have ruled with the force of precedent that hybrids between endangered species,
subspecies, or populations cannot be protected. Their opinion, referred to here
as the Hybrid Policy, concluded
that protection of hybrids would not serve to recover listed species and would
likely jeopardize that species' continued existence. An mtDNA survey of wolves
and coyotes across the northern United States and Canada (3) revealed evidence
for the presence of coyote mtDNA in wolf populations, but not vice versa, in a
restricted region ranging from northern Minnesota to southern Quebec. Anecdotal
accounts of wolf-coyote hybridization, the recent mtDNA results, and knowledge
of the Hybrid Policy have prompted a formal petition from the Farm
Bureaus of Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho
to the U.S. Department of Interior
that C. lupus be removed from Endangered
and Threatened Lists. Similar logic
has also been used to prevent reintroduction of gray wolves into Yellowstone
National Park others suggesting that
[the red wolf] be considered a subspecies of gray wolf (4). The dusky
seaside sparrow (Ammodramus maritimus nigrescens) became extinct in 1987 [however, before
its extinction "five of these were brought into captivity and crossed with
a morphologically similar subspecies from the gulf coast of Florida, Scott's
seaside sparrow, A. m. peninsulae. The opinion of the Solicitor's Office in 1981 stated that the
production of hybrids between the two subspecies (or any others) would not be in
the interest of the Endangered Species Act". Also: "The dusky seaside
sparrow had a series of molecular characters that distinguished it from Gulf
Coast subspecies but were indistinguishable from Atlantic Coast populations
(5)." The authors declare that these last two ones should be considered
subspecies] different subspecies are reproductively compatible can
and do interbreed as a natural process whenever they are in contact Subspecies
that are defined by genealogical concordance and geographic partitioning can be
protected because of their potential and their acquisition of unique
characteristics; they represent important components of biological diversity.
Occasional introgression or interbreeding should not be viewed as
inconsistent with subspecies status; they simply change the phylogenetic
description... The authors conclude declaring that: It is important that
legal opinions recognize the important distinction between species and
subspecies... and that hybridization between subspecies retain the potential
to freely interbreed as part of ongoing natural processes [but also "[can]
disintegrate [the previous] population genetic organization"]
Refs.
(3) N. Lehman et al, Evolution, in press; C. H. Daugherty et al,
Nature 347, 177 (1990); A.
Meyer et al, ibid, p. 550; I. D. Merch, The Wolf: The Ecology
and Behavior of an Endangered Species (Univ. of Minnesota Press), Minneapolis, 1970.
(4) R. Ferrell, Biochem. Genet. 18, 39 (1980);
R. M. Nowak and J. L. Paradiso, Walker's Mammals of the World (John
Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore, 1983).
(5) J. C. Avise and W. S. Nelson, Science
243, 646 (1989); P. W. Sykes, Jr., Am. Birds 34, 728 (1980).
p-
Genes which Divide Species or Produce Hybrid Vigor. W. E.
Castle. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 32(5):145-149 (May, 1946).
"Two species of cultivated beans, Phaseolus vulgaris and P. multiflorus, were found, when
artificially crossed, to produce vigorous and fertile F1 hybrids. In
F2 all characters, in which the two
species differ, recombine freely in viable zygotes, with a single exception...
gene Epi [epigean cotyledons] of P. vulgaris, and its allele Hyp [hypogean cotyledons] of P.
multiflorus. F1 hybrids show an intermediate character ... both [genes are]
dominant species-specific alleles at a common genetic locus, occurring normally
in different species. F1 hybrids
show an intermediate character, thus demonstrating that both are present in an
active state... It is possible that the puzzling phenomenon of hybrid vigor
may find its explanation along similar lines."
q-
Endangered Bird Species: Habitat Manipulation Methods.
David R. Zimmerman. Science 192(4242): 876-878 (May, 1976).
[Zimmerman is a freelance journalist, in NY, author of
"To Save a Bird in Peril (Concard-McCann, Ny, 1975)"]
"... of greater immediate interest in the United
States, whooping cranes (Grus americana) cross-fostered
to sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis) remains to be seen... [it is known that] sandhill
cranes will interbreed with whooping cranes in captivity. In a highly
publicized experiment the USFWS is attempting to create a second flock of
wild whooping cranes for insurance by moving eggs from whooping crane nests in
northern Canada to the nests of the sandhill cranes at the Grays Lake
National Wildlife Refuge in Idaho.
Last spring (1975) 13 eggs were moved, and as of early this year four or five
of the young were alive and well with their foster parents at the sandhill
cranes southern migratory terminal in New Mexico. The hybridization risk may be
great for those whooping cranes, for even if all four show up at Grays Lake to
mate three or four springs from now, they will have to find each other among
hundreds of pairs of breeding sandhill cranes that look just like their foster
parents. Of course, if mixed pairings occurred, biologists could remove the
eggs and substitute purebred whooping crane eggs in their place. They even
might trap and remove the sandhill crane parent of a hybrid pair, so that the
second generation of whooping cranes in Idaho, unlike the first, would be
raised by a conspecific parent... captive breeding poses serious problems
compared to field techniques. Some species, like the whooping crane, have
proved to be difficult to breed, rear, and maintain in captivity in the numbers
that might be required to stock the new wild populations. Captive-bred young
that are destined for release require special handling to ensure that they do
not become too trusting of or dependent on humans, which could jeopardize their
lives in the wild. Preparing them for release is still a challenge: birds
turned loose unprepared for the rigors of fending for themselves in the wild
often die soon."
r-
[Errors in Carnegie's] Tower's Evolution in Leptinotarsa. Frederick Knab (from Wash., D.C.). Science 27(684):223-227 (Feb., 1908).
"L. violacesceus Stal and L.
libatrix Suffrian occur in the same
localities and appear to be forms of one species. Leptinotarsa puncticollis Jacoby is merely a color variant of L.
behrensi L. oblonga is dimorphic and has a red and yellow form. In
truth, several of the forms which Professor Tower enumerates as species are
invalidated by the evidence which he presents in the body of the work. Thus L. melanothorax... can in no sense be termed a species; it does not exist
independently in nature and is merely a color-variant of L.
multitaeniata... he [Prof. Tower] should deposit series of all his
species in a public museum, such as the National Museum, where they would be
accessible to students and their preservation and authenticity guaranteed... We
are virtually asked [by Prof. Tower] to believe that since the days of the
Spanish conquest L.
multitaeniata has produced the two
species [L.] intermedia and [L.] decem-lineata [which
by the way Prof. Tower deliberately confounds with L. juncta] [Then] the [wrong] observation of
Professor Quaintance that [L.] juncta and [L.] decem-lineata
"hybridize freely in nature, although the eggs that are laid are not
fertile," is ingeniously turned to account. [Then, Tower declares:]
"The full explanation of the extinction of [L.] juncta is to be found in the fact that the two species cross freely in
nature, and that this natural crossing has resulted in a most interesting and
peculiar case of prepotency in one species and of submergence in the other"
Furthermore, Tower states that his L. oblongata and L. multitaeniata Stal
occur together upon the same food plant but do not interbreed. The same
statement is made with reference to L. multitaeniata and L. rubicunda
Tower. These three forms appear to be much more nearly related to each other
than are L. decem-lineata [L. decemlineata] and L. juncta and it is
unreasonable to believe that the last two interbreed freely while the
first three do not. "A similar case... is that of the crowding out of Pieris
oleracea by Pieris rapae. Pieris oleracea still persists in the mountainous parts of
New England, where it is found associated with P. rapae... In the Chrysomelidae the crossing of closely related species is
quite common when the two forms occur upon the same food plant. I [Frederick Knab] have observed
it repeatedly in Gastroidea polygoni and G. cyanea, but
I am not aware that such crossing has had any appreciable effect upon either
species... The work, along with other Carnegie publications, suffers very materially through the absence of an
index."
s-
Soluble Proteins of a Melanoma and Normal Skin from
the Swordtail, Platyfish, and Their Hybrids. Douglas G. Humm; Avis L. Sylvia. Science
150(3696): 635-636 (Oct., 1965).
"In the laboratory, under confined conditions,
Xiphophorus helleri (the swordtail) and X. maculatus (the platyfish) will
interbreed, and the resulting hybrid is fertile. The interspecies
hybridization has received considerable scientific attention (1) owing to the
fact that the interaction of the genes of the platyfish, wich lead to the
production of macromelanophore sporting, with certain genes in the swordtail
results in the production of a mailgnant melanoma in the first filial and in subsequent
generations."
t-
The Probable Origin of Certain Birds. J. A. Allen. Science
22(562):431-434 (Oct., 1905).
"By those who are most familiar with the facts. Interbreeding
is known to occur between the two stock species [Helminthophaga leucobronchialis, 150 extant individuals, and of H.
lawrencei, ~25 extant individuals],
and also between their offspring and both of the stock species, and it has been
repeatedly assumed by the best authorities that the hybrids are fertile inter
se. This feature of the case is of course impossible to
demonstration, owing to the nature of the conditions - the impossibility of
continued observations of the same individuals for a series of years."
u-
The Cytoplasmic Separation of Species. Donald F.
Jones. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 37(7):408-410 (Jul., 1951).
"The classification of animals and plants into
somewhat arbitrary taxonomic groups, based upon structural details, cellular
configurations, ecological adaptations and other information, serves a useful
and indispensable purpose, but the setting apart of these groups by their
inability to interbreed or to produce viable offspring, differing from the
parental forms, is the final criterion the most widely spaced geographical
races are as fertile with each other as those near each other."
v-
Reviewed Work(s): The Species Problem. A Symposium
Presented at the Atlanta. Meeting of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, 28-29 Dec. 1955. Publication No. 50 by Ernst Mayr. Science
127(3292): 245 (Jan., 1958).
Author(s) of Review: G. G. Simpson, American Museum of
Natural History, New York.
"" the species problem does exist; it is
crucial for all biological science; and the last word on it has not been and
probably never will be said Yet the lack of a sharply decisive criterion
raises problems of practical application [in hope of] the last word
on the applicability and practicability of the interbreeding concept of species
for organisms that do in fact interbreed. We must look to the future for a
truly general solution of the species problem, one that also takes into account
the multitude of organisms that do not interbreed."
w-
Man and His Dog. Science 278(5336):205-207
(Oct., 1997).
"Belyaev [DK, J. Hered. 70, 301 (1979)] produced
similar changes in silver foxes (Vulpes
vulpes) by selecting and breeding only
those individuals showing submissive tendencies toward humans. He brought about
these changes in about 20 fox generations, within his own lifetime, not in
100,000 years. The foxes exhibited modified reproduction (with two annual
estrous cycles), barking behavior, dropping ears, and altered coloration. The
process involved destabilization of the endocrine system and was accomplished
through selective breeding for docility. Development of large, permanent,
agriculture-based societies probably facilitated both behavioral modifications
and extension of reproductive activity. This process, occurring approximately
5000 [or longer] years ago, was associated with the domestication of a number
of mammalian species, of which the dog is thought to have been the first"
[N. E. Federoff; R. M. Nowak].
"when European explorers in the 18th
and 19th centuries finally mapped the world, they found dogs
wherever people existed... While most of the Amerind dogs have become extinct,
some still remain. These breeds could have interbred with the coyote, C. latrans. Also, new dog
populations may still be discovered in the Old World, as in the case of the
Malaysian Telomian dog discovered by Elliot in 1965 [JP Scott, OS Elliot,
A. Traftner, J. Kirchenbaum, Carnivore
Genet. Newsl. 3, 45 (1967)]". The
authors conclude that recent suggestions by Vam Berkom indicate that mtDNA
findings may also be affected by population dynamics involving infectious
diseases (through Wright's bottleneck effect) [J. P. Scott; Orville S. Elliot;
Benson E. Ginsburg]" "all species in the genus Canis can interbreed, but they rarely do so when
their ranges overlap"
gene trees may not exactly correspond with species or population trees"
[Vila et al].
x-
Macaque
"Semispecies". Morris Goodman. Science 148(3667):255 (Apr.,
1965).
Goodman is on the School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan.
"We doubt that [Jack] Fooden has the evidence
to rule out the view that a limited degree of gene exchange or introgression is
possible between sympatric macaque groups such as M. irus
and M. speciosa, or M. irus and M.
nemestrina, in their zones of
geographic overlap. If we now have a correct understanding of the
concluding remarks in his report, he believes his preliminary studies
indicate that M.
nemestrina and M. assainensis (and perhaps some other macaque groups?)
may intergrade to constitute an enlarged species which is distinct from the
enlarged species group he would create consisting of M. mulatta, M. fascicularis (irus), and perhaps some other currently recognized macaque species. However,
a not uncommon view among students of the primates is that M. assainensis (along with M. cyclopis)
is closely allied to M. mulatta." [The authors
suggest that taxonomic subdivisions of the genus Macaca
should be regarded as "semispecies rather than complete species", i.e. for crab-eating macaques, M. irus, and stump-tailed macaques, M.
speciosa being remarks on known
and probable intergradation].
y-
Some Observations Concerning Species and Subspecies. Barton
W. Evermann. Science 11(273):451-455 (Mar., 1900).
"We
sometimes hear the remark that systematists often go too far, and describe as
new species or subspecies forms which differ but slightly from known forms;
that they give specific or subspecific value to differences which are due
merely to some slight difference in environment." My comment: In this
article the author misses the whole point by never mentioning the importance to
recognize subspecies or varieties by their ability to interbreed producing
fertile offspring but at least he uses the most adequate term
"subspecies" instead of the fuzzy term "semi-species", or
"incipient species", that seems to assume that those are on the
process to became species, which is not the case.
z-
Miscellaneous articles:
Streptococcal L-Forms Isolated from Drosophila
paulistorum Semispecies Cause Sterility in Male Progeny. Norman L. Somerson;
Lee Ehrman; John P. Kocka; Fred J. Gottlieb. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America 81(1):282-285 [Part 1:
Biological Sciences] (Jan., 1984).
"The Drosophila paulistorum complex
contains six semispecies that do not normally interbreed. In the laboratory,
crosses between semispecies produce fertile daughters and sterile sons.
Microbial endosymbionts have been observed in all D. paulistorum flies that display this male sterility.
Streptococcal L-forms have been isolated from the Andean-Brazilian (Mesitas)
and Transitional (Santa Marta) semispecies and cultured in artificial medium.
Transfer of these L-forms from their native hosts into reciprocal semispecies
resulted in sterile male progeny. When L-forms were inoculated into the
semispecies from which they had been isolated, most of the male progeny were
fertile. Control streptococcal L-forms did not show this sterility
pattern."
Somerson NL, Ehrman L, Kocka JP. Induction by
streptococcal L-forms of two reproductive isolating mechanisms in Drosophila paulistorum. Isr J Med Sci. 1984
Oct;20(10):1009-12.
"To extend these findings, and L-form from the
Centro-American flies was injected into three semispecies. Transfer of L-form
from one semispecies to another resulted in sterile male progeny. The L-form
isolated from Mesitas was injected into all six semispecies. Results simulated
"hybrid inviability," i.e., only the Mesitas semispecies produced the
expected number of offspring, and the total number of progeny from the other
five semispecies was considerably reduced. Despite the small numbers of males,
reflecting induced inviability, there was evidence that the transfer of L-forms
from one semispecies to another simultaneously caused sterility in male
progeny."
Incompatibility of Mutant Races in Drosophila. C. W.
Metz; C. B. Bridges. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 3(12):673-678 (Dec., 1917).
"Perhaps
the most characteristic difference between ordinary mutant races in the
laboratory or experimental garden... is [that...] mutant races usually
exhibit complete inter-fertility... [and even if not always...] the
probabilities greatly favor the elimination of one or both mutant types...
[when one mutant character, like the "notch"] is dominant... cannot
be obtained in a homozygous condition because of its lethal effect, and hence
the mutant could never make a pure race... [i.e.,] in each case the two
respective mutants appeared in pedigreed laboratory cultures, leaving no doubt
about their being typical 'mutants'."
Experiments on Sexual Isolation in Drosophila. III. Geographic Strains of Drosophila sturtevanti. Th. Dobzhansky. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 30(11):335-339 (Nov., 1944).
"The strains of Drosophila sturtevanti Duda (= D. biopaca Sturtevant) came
from Tamazunchale, state of San Luis Potosi, Mexico (obtained through the
courtesy of Professor J. T. Patterson), Quirigua, Guatemala (obtained through
the courtesy of Professor A. H. Sturtevant), Belem, state of Para, Rio de
Janeir, Federal District, and Bertioga, state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, the
flies from all these strains are morphologically similar, intercross readily
and give rise to fertile F1 and F2 progenies."
Drosophila
paulistorum, a Cluster of Species in Statu
Nascendi. Theodosius Dobzhansky; Boris
Spassky. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America. 45(3):419-428
(Mar., 1959).
"...Darwin wrote that "... species are only
strongly marked and permanent varieties, and that each species first existed as
a variety..." Species of sexual and cross-fertilizing organisms arise
mostly through gradual divergence and reproductive isolation of subspecies
(= geographic races or varieties). Evidence of this are numerous
"borderline cases," in which subspecies have almost reached the
degree of divergence and of reproductive isolation met with among species...
and yet they appear to be only races if the connecting links are considered.
Gene exchange between the terminal links remains possible, and
may actually be taking place, via the connecting chain of subspecies. Several
examples of circular chains of subspecies have been observed, chiefly
in birds and insects (reviews in Mayr and Rensch). A beautiful case in a
species of salamander has recently been added by Stebbins. The first
instance in the genus Drosophila is to be reported in the present article [D.
paulistorum]. According to Patterson
and Stone's review, the genus Drosophila contained 613 described species in 1952."
Refs.
Mayr, E. Systematics and the Origin of Species (NY;
1942).
Rensch, B. Neuere Probleme der Abstammungslehre
(Stuttgart; 1954).
Stebbins, RC. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., 48, 377-526
(1949).
Stebbins, RC. Evolution, 11, 256-270 (1957).
Patterson JT & WS Stone. Evolution in the Genus
Drosophila (NY; 1952).
The same quotation of Darwin, poreviously done by TD
can be seen 13 years later with the prefixed words "Darwin concluded that:
[then the same quotation]", together with his very same example of Drosophila paulistorum, at:
Species of Drosophila. Theodosius Dobzhansky. Science 177(4050):664-669
(Aug., 1972).
"To classical taxonomists, species and races
(varieties) were categories of classification... A biological species
concept is therefore necessary. Its beginning goes back to John Ray, who
stated in 1686 that "one species
never springs from the seed of another [quoted in (1)]. Attempts were
made later to define species as forms that are unable to cross, or that produce
inviable or sterile offspring when crossed... There are probably no
fewer than 2000 species of drosophilid flies (11, 12) ... More than 100
species of Drosophila have been recorded for the republic of
Salvador, 39 in one locality in Texas, only 9 in Alaska, and a single species
introduced by man in Tierra del Fuego. The archipelago of Hawaii, with
total area smaller than the state of Massachusetts, has over 500 species of
drosophilids, all but 17 of which are endemics (12) ["descended
from probably two, or even a single species"] Hybrids of Drosophila
pseudo-obscura and D.
persimilis are easily obtainable in
the laboratory..."
Refs.
(1) Mayr E, Animal species and Evolution (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1961).
(11) Hardy DE, Insects of Hawaii: Dipera
(Univ. of Hawaii Press.
Honolulu, 1965).
(12) Carson HL, DE Hardy, HT Spieth, WS Stone, in
Essays in Evolution and Genetics, MK Hecht and WC Steere, Eds. (Appleton-Century-Crofts, NY, 1970).
Genetic Complexity of Host-Selection Behavior in Drosophila. John Jaenike. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America.
83(7):2148-2151 (Apr., 1986).
"... no consensus of opinion on how new
species arise has emerged; thus recent reviews concerned with the relation
between population structure and speciation have promoted radically different
hypotheses (2-5). One reason for the wavering direction of speciation
theory is the virtual absence of information on the nature of intraspecific
genetic variation for the types of structures, behaviors, and physiologies that
would seem to be important in the development of reproductive isolation [Then
the author mentions as "notable and promising" the work of Carson et al
on inheritance of male tibial bristles in some D. silvestris, "thought to be used during courtship
(6-8)...] F2 [D. tripunctata] females derived from the S64 (Male) x S74 (Female) cross were very
similar in their behavior to those derived from the reciprocal cross... [thus]
the X chromosome makes a negligible contribution to the variation in settling
behavior... with respect to the magnitude of genetic or phenotypic variation
that can be maintained within populations, it is worth noting that both males
and females of D. tripunctata
["a common woodland species of eastern North America that breeds in fruits
and mushrooms in nature"] manifest genetically based variation in settling
behavior, but only females can do so for oviposition-site preference [S64
prefer to ovoposit on tomato medium in the laboratory, while S74 strain on
mushroom medium; however, the opposite happens when flies are released in the
field]... host selection is a genetically complex phenomenon ['cause this
"evidence that sequential phases of this process (host selection) are
mediated by independent segregating genetic loci"]..."
Flow of Mitochondrial DNA across a
Species Boundary. Stephen D. Ferris; Richard D. Sage; Chun-Ming Huang; Jorn
Tonnes Nielsen; Uzi Ritte; Allan C. Wilson. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America. 80(8):2290-2294 [Part 1:
Biological Sciences] (Apr., 1983).
"Restriction analysis shows that wild
Scandinavian mice belonging to the species Mus musculus contain the mitochondrial DNA of a neighboring species, M.
domesticus [These two types of mice are sometimes
considered as semispecies]... examining the distribution of genes across a
hybrid zone - i.e., a geographic zone where two species meet and interbreed but
where there is limited flow of nuclear genes. Of all the hybrid zones examined
by both organismal and molecular biologists, that between two species of mice
in Denmark is the best known (6-8). The comprehensive study by Hunt and
Selander (7) of proteins encoded by the nuclei of 2,696 mice caught at 44
Danish localities delineated the hybrid zone as regards nuclear genes. In
addition the protein evidence agrees with anatomical evidence as to the
geographic location of this hybrid zone (6-8). Further protein work has shown
how these Danish mice are related to other commensal mice (9, 10). Commensal
mice are those species that live in close association with buildings used by
humans."
Refs.
(6) Ursin E (1952) Vidensk. Medd. Dansk Naturhist. Foren. 114, 217-244.
(7) Hunt WG & Selander BK (1973) Heredity
31, 11-33.
(8) Schnell GD & Selander BK (1981) in Mammalian
Population Genetics, eds. Smith MH & Joule J (Univ. Georgia Press, Athens, GA), pp. 60-99.
(9) Thaler L, Bonhomme F & Britton-Davidian J
(1981) Symp. Zool. Soc.
London 47, 27-41.
(10) Sage RD (1981) in The Mouse in Biomedical
Research, eds. Foster HL, Small JD & Fox JG (Academic,
NY), Vol. I, pp. 39-90.
Genetic Basis of X-Y Chromosome Dissociation and Male
Sterility in Interspecific Hybrids. Yoichi Matsuda; Tomohisa Hirobe; Verne M.
Chapman. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States
of America. 88(11): 4850-4854 (Jun., 1991).
"All F1
males were sterile and approximately half of the backcross males from fertile F1 females crossed with either BL/6 [Mus musculus (the authors call it M. domesticus) strain C57BL/6J] or M. spretus males were sterile. Male sterility was highly correlated with X-Y
dissociation in both backcrosses. All of the mice with high X-Y dissociation
were sterile and all of the males with low X-Y dissociation were fertile or
subfertile... M. spretus
males will interbreed with females of laboratory strains of house mice under
laboratory conditions to produce viable hybrid progeny. The F1
females are fertile and they can be backcrossed to males of either species. By
contrast, F1 bybrid males are
sterile."
Concordant Mitochondrial and Nuclear DNA Phylogenies
for Populations of the Teleost Fish Fundulus heteroclitus. Giacomo
Bernardi; Paolo Sordino; Dennis A. Powers. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 90(20):9271-9274 (Oct., 1993).
"Populations of F. heteroclitus are distributed nearly continuously from Canada to Florida. Northern
and southern populations are known to freely interbreed in the laboratory and
in nature... our results suggest that natural
selection, by itself, does not entirely account for the original genetic
separation between northestern and southern populations of F. heteroclitus."
//////////////////////
From Grzimek's Animal
Life Encyclopedia:
Fishes:
Order: Lepisosteiformes
Vol. 4: Fishes I
Lepisosteus
platyrhincus
(Florida gar)
Reproductive Biology:
Little is known about
the reproductive habits; may interbreed with L. oculatus in the
Apalachicola River drainage.
Lance Grande,PhD
p. 227
------------------
Vol. 4: Fishes I Order:
Elopiformes
Megalops atlanticus (Atlantic tarpon)
While some areas may
attract larger fish, these fish are not different genetically from those found
elsewhere in the western Atlantic, and they all appear to interbreed freely.
p. 246
///////////////////////////
Reptiles:
Family: Chameleons Vol.
7: Reptiles
Furcifer pardalis
(Panther chameleon)
"... there is anecdotal
evidence that interbreeding specimens from distant locales results in
sterile offspring."
p. 240
///////////////////////////
Amphibians:
Vol 6:
Amphibians Family: African treefrogs
Hyperolius viridiflavus
(Painted reed frog)
"...there are a few
cases of two "subspecies " occurring together..."
p. 287
------------------
Family:
Mole salamanders Vol 6: Amphibians
Ambystoma gracile
(Northwestern salamander)
Reproductive Biology:
Reproductive maturity is
reached in two to several years, depending on elevation. Populations vary in
terms of metamorphosis/paedomorphosis; it is not known whether the two types
interbreed [Two subspecies generally are recognized, although scientific
evidence for this is weak.]
Pp.
358-359
///////////////////////////
Birds:
Vol. 8: Birds I Family:
Hawks and eagles
...few hawks have
plumage morphs such that two or more color forms occur and interbreed.
p. 319 [book 1]
------------------
Family:Oystercatchers
Vol.9:Birds II
Haematopus moquini
(African black oystercatcher)
Reproductive
Biology
Frequent
interbreeding between morphs.
p. 130-131 [book 2]
------------------
Vol.9:Birds II
Family:Stilts and avocets
Himantopus
novaezelandiae (Black stilt)
Conservation
Status
Critically Endangered.
Habitat loss, predation on eggs after introduction of carnivorous animals to
island, and interbreeding with H. himantopus all contribute to decline.
Population crashed in late 1950s from 1,000 birds to fewer than 100, where it
remains today. Captive-breeding, anti-predator, and habitat restoration
programs began in the 1980s have had some success in reducing population
decline.
Pp.
138-139
------------------
Vol. 9: Birds II Family:
Pigeons and doves
Columba livia (Rock
pigeon)
Conservation
Status
Interbreeding with
feral pigeons
seriously threatens the species.
p. 255
------------------
Family: Tyrant
flycatchers Vol. 10: Birds III
(Tyrannidae) Tyrant
flycatchers
The Tyrannidae, with 110
recognized genera and 375 species, form one of the largest bird families;
indeed, the family has the largest number of species among Western Hemispheric
birds. Many genera contain species that are nearly indistinguishable by
sight and can be identified only by their distinct vocalizations.
p. 269
------------------
Family: Larks Vol. 10:
Birds III
(Alaudidae) Larks
...southwestern
Africa is inhabited by six sedentary and closely related Certhilauda
species...
p. 342
------------------
Family:
New World warblers Vol. 11: Birds IV
(Parulidae) New World
warblers
For years, taxonomists
were left scratching their heads. The first to consider the possibility that
blue- and golden-wings were the same species, and were producing hybrid
offspring, was probably John James Audubon, who apparently examined one of
the earliest collected specimens of a Brewster's warbler. Through his astute
observational skills, he noted the similarities to the blue-winged and
golden-winged warblers, and asserted in a letter dated 1835 that the three
were likely the same species. His later writings made no reference to this
contention, however, and the puzzle continued for several decades until the
early 1900s when birder Walter Faxon found a mating pair made up of a female
blue-winged and male golden-winged, and discovered the progeny all to be
Brewster's warblers. Lawrence's warblers were later similarly discovered to be
hybrids. Although the findings settled the classification of Lawrence's and
Brewster's, the status of the blue-winged and golden-winged warblers was much
less certain. Currently, taxonomists regard them as two separate species, as
they do with some other occasional interbreeders, like the hermit
(Dendroica occidentalis) and Townsend's warblers (D. townsendi). On the
other hand, taxonomists have determined that two formerly separate species,
known as the myrtle and Audubon's warblers, are actually one species with two
plumage patterns. The birds, which still retain their common names
(Audubon's warbler in western North America and myrtle warbler in the East), are
now both listed as the yellow-rumped warbler (D. coronata). The
phylogenetic relationship of Parulidae to other bird families is also less than
clear-cut.
p. 286
------------------
Vol. 11:
Birds IV Family: Finches
(Fringillidae) Finches
The most common color of
the domestic canary is the well-known bright yellow, or "canary yellow,"
but numerous other color varieties also have been bred. Red-colored
canaries owe their origin, and their reddish coloration, to captive
interbreeding of the island canary with the black-capped red siskin (Carduelis
atriceps). Canaries are still a common pet and are prized all over the
world as eager songsters. Selective breeding has produced varieties of
canaries with distinctly different songs. A variety of other finches
also are kept as cage-birds for their song, lively behavior, and/or attractive
plumage. Other than the domesticated canary, all finches have some
indirect, local economic importance through ecotourism associated with birding.
p. 325
///////////////////////////
Mammals:
Family: Wallabies and
kangaroos Vol. 13: Mammals II
Petrogale penicillata
(Brush-tailed rock wallaby)
Reproductive
Biology
Females reach sexual
maturity at 18 months; gestation period 31 days; pouch life 204 days. In the
north of its range, there is a narrow hybrid zone in which there is interbreeding
between Petrogale penicillata and the neighboring species, Petrogale herbertii.
Probably promiscuous.
p. 97
------------------
Vol. 15: Mammals IV
Family: Dolphins
Globicephala melas
(Long-finned pilot whale)
There are two
population, northern and southern, Nearctic area of Atlantic Ocean.
p. 56
------------------
Vol. 15: Mammals IV
Ungulate domestication
Horses and donkeys, for example, were one of the first
domesticates, but none of the four zebra species that are able to interbreed
with them have been actually tamed.
p. 145
------------------
Procaviidae (Hyraxes)
Where both species
live together, they huddle together in the early mornings after spending the
night in the same holes. They also use the same urination and defecation sites. Parturition tends to be
synchronous, and the two species cooperate. Newborns are greeted and sniffed
intensively by members of both species, and they form a nursery group and play
together. Most of their vocalizations are also similar. However,
bush and rock hyraxes do differ in key behavior patterns. They do not
interbreed because their mating behavior is different, and they have
different reproductive anatomy. The male territorial call, which
might function as a "keep out " sign, is also different.
Finally, the bush hyrax browses on leaves, but the rock hyrax feeds mainly
on grass. The latter is probably the main factor that allows both species
to live together.
p. 181
------------------
Order: Perissodactyla
Vol. 15: Mammals IV
All species of equids
can interbreed, including the zebras, and hybrids can produce more or less
viable offspring. Different species do not normally interbreed in nature and it
usually requires human guile and expertise to bring it about. Hybridization
between horses and donkeys occurs relatively often. The production of mules
(offspring of a male donkey with a female horse) is easier than the production
of hinnies (offspring of female donkey and a male horse).
p. 223
------------------
Vol. 15: Mammals IV
Family: Horses, zebras, and asses
Equus africanus (African
wild ass)
Conservation
Status
Critically Endangered,
with a 90 % reduction in range in the last 20 years. Major threats are hunting
for food and medicine, potential competition for water and forage with domestic
livestock, and possible interbreeding with domestic donkeys.
p. 232
------------------
Vol. 15: Mammals IV
Family: Horses, zebras, and asses
Equus zebra (Mountain
zebra)
Conservation Status
Endangered, due to small
population size. Major threats are fragmented and small populations, droughts
and reduced access to water and forage, and interbreeding between the two
sub-species.
p. 234
------------------
Family: Pigs Vol. 15:
Mammals IV
Sus celebensis (Celebes
pig. English: Sulawesi warty pig; Spanish: Jabalí celebiano)
Variety of habitats,
from rain-forest to swamp. Primarily diurnal, actively feeding during the day. Often
interbreed with other pigs. Groups consist of family members and other individuals.
Presently throughout Indonesia.
p. 289
------------------
Vol. 15:
Mammals IV Family: Pigs
Sus timoriensis (Timor
wild boar. English: Feral Celebes pig; Spanish: Jabalí de Timor)
Variety of habitats,
from rain-forest to swamp. Primarily diurnal, actively feeding during the day. Often
interbreed with other pigs. Groups consist of family members and other
individuals. Lesser Sunda Island Chain in Indonesia.
p. 290
------------------
Vol. 16: Mammals V
Subfamily: Bovids I
Bos grunniens (Yak)
Conservation Status
Classified as
Vulnerable, wild yaks face habitat loss and degradation due to livestock
grazing on their natural pastures. These alpine/tundra steppes are low in plant
productivity and so competition with livestock is exacerbated. Hunting by local
people for meat and hides continue to contribute to extirpation of wild yaks.
Besides ecological factors, interbreeding between domestic yak and wild yak
may pose additional threats to wild populations.
p. 18
///////////////////////////
Grzimek's Animal Life
Encyclopedia
Conservation Vol. 1:
Lower Metazoans and Lesser Deuterostomes
Hundreds
of thousands of Atlantic salmon raised in pens in the Pacific have escaped to
locations where they can hybridize and genetically weaken native stocks. Atlantic salmon escaped from
Atlantic pens can also interbreed with wild stocks and interfere with the
latter's ability to find their spawning grounds, which is a trait that is
passed on genetically. Other problems posed by aquaculture include the
spread of diseases amongst pens and to wild stocks as well as the discharge of
untreated effluent and nitrogenous wastes that result in eutrophication.
p. 52
------------------
Grzimek's Animal Life
Encyclopedia
Stock - A biologically distinct and
interbreeding population within a species of aquatic animals.
p. 510 (Vol. 1) and p.
546 (Vol. 2)
//////////////////////
http://www.iscid.org/boards/ubb-get_topic-f-6-t-000488-p-7.html
posted 04. May 2004 17:05
You wrote:
>" Evolutionists incorrectly call those finches Darwin's finches.
Actually they are God's finches. The interesting variations in beak size and
shape merely demonstrate the impressive flexibility that we observe as we learn
more and more about God's incredible programming of life."
I completely agree with you, and inspired by your comment, I want to add the
next, related to the study of cranes:
http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0404/feature2/map.html
(National Geographic, April 2004, pages 46-47)
I thought that, if all those cranes were also only varietes of one same
species, as the finches are, they were then able to interbreed among themselves,
and then, they were able to have a fertile offspring (the second generation
fertility test.) It is well known, as we have seen in a link before, that the
two Australian 'species' of cranes can interbreed and have a fertile offspring.
In that way, we can save the genetic load of the varieties endangered (the
Canadian, the Siberian, and the Japanese), through crossing some of them with
varieties not endangered, and according to Mendel's Laws, at least 1/4 of the F2
will present features corresponding to the endangered ones, and if we cross
those, plus backcrosses with the original endangered ones, we can gradually
increase and take out of the list the number of the 'endangered' varieties. We
don't want those same organisms ever present on those lists.
With a better
understanding of the real or true 'species' the plan for the full use of our
natural resources makes complete sense, as also not for forever an organism
like the salmon must be in the list of 'endangered species'.
I am proposing an
organized and exhaustive research project on the "second generation
fertility test" of fauna, flora and micro-organisms, to set also a higher
standard in our understanding of which of them are real species, and which of
them are just sub-species.
This is another practical example of a perspective completely based on
'Intelligent Design' and in total opposition to evolution and to the mistakes
of the 'morphological' classification of organisms.
God provided us with every natural resource to use them wisely. This is another
'clash' between the evolutionarily static conservationism versus the practical
Intelligent Design (ID) Research (as Mendel, and our contemporary breeders are
well aware of).
To do such
recoveries of 'endangered' organisms. That's a lot of work, but is worthy.
That will shut down the wrong idea of 'speciation', and will preserve and
produce deliberately biodiversity in different natural and new locations.
I don't want
neither to hide anymore our human ignorance behind useless hypotheses, theories,
degrees, and titles that are based on 'evolutionary thinking'.
The book of
An expanded list of animals pertaining to the same true species but mistakenly
classified as if pertaining to different species can be of great use for that
purpose, and also to prevent 'the mischievous exploitation of ignorance' that
has been going on within evolutionists, darwinists, and every other
'speciation'-ist.
///////
Response, the
last posting allowed on my "Brainstorms" board for the year 2004:
nobody, Member #
145, posted 17. May 2004
Thanks Fernando,
That's all good information. I don't know your position on Noah's Flood, but it
seems to me like this removes one of the key complaints by evolutionists. They
say an ark of the size specified in the Bible could not hold all the species.
But you are proving that, at least in some cases, evolutionists are using
inflated numbers.
http://www.iscid.org/boards/ubb-get_topic-f-6-t-000488-p-8.html
/////////////
Go to main page: http://www.oocities.org/plin9k
Other related
sites:
Putting Limits on the Diversity of Life. Richard A. Kerr. Science 2001 May 25; 292: 1481 (in News Focus)
"A new way to analyze the fossil record is suggesting that life... long
ago hit a limit to its diversity. Where Sepkowski's numbers told of steadily
increasing marine diversity, a recount shows a plateau! 25 paleontologists demonstrate a fresh
approach to extracting a history of life from an imperfect fossil record
imperfectly sampled by paleontologists for 180 years. Preliminary results
contradict previous studies that showed biodiversity increasing over time.
http://www.oocities.org/fdocch/limitsfish.htm
The outstanding study reviewed by Kerr depicts the two explosions of life and the interval
of destruction, with all the animal life on the ocean appearing at the same
time in each explosion of life, without any "gradual appearing of new
kinds of organisms".
http://www.iscid.org/boards/ubb-get_topic-f-18-t-000034.html
Tasters of the Word (YouTube), videos recientes: "Astronomía y Nacimiento de Jesucristo: Once de Septiembre Año Tres A.C.", "Estudio sobre Sanidades" (en 20 episodios), "Jesus Christ, Son or God?":
Tasters of the Word (the blog, with: "Astronomy and the Birth of Jesus Christ"):
