| Visual SCROLL down for "ORIGINS OF VISUAL METHODS" Welcome to Visual and Active.com, the web site that invites you to become more VISUAL and Active in your learning. If you are a visual learner, please ask your teacher to move around, to draw pictures and words on the board and to use powerpoint. Send your email address to s2314@tmail.com and I'll notify you of the update... and I'll send you emails at least once a month to remind you to learn new words... Many Visual Learners have trouble knowing how to get started when writing a story. The secret is "Just go!" (see visualspatial.org) However, some of us want a better direction. Here's a suggestion: Do you dislike writing but you want to get started on writing a short story or a novel? A teacher in Australia uses an interesting technique. It's called "363" 3 sentences to describe the set up or to introduce the story and the characters 6 sentences to tell what happens 3 sentences to describe the ending If you can't get the story in this format, you shouldn't waste your time writing the story. This outline is a good practice. Try it with the first Star Wars story (where Luke Skywalker starts on Tatooine). See below for my attempt. GO! (yes, now is the moment when you pick up a pen and write 3 sentences to describe the set up or to introduce the story and the characters 6 sentences to tell what happens 3 sentences to describe the ending TO see examples of "Scanography" (yes, it is using a SCANNER to make PHOTOGRAPHS), go to www.scottsolochek.com What kind of VISUAL learning method is this if we don't see lots of interesting pictures? Good point. Keep scrolling down... Hey, did you attempt the 3 6 3 metnhod The Teacher's Attempt Why is it important to see a teacher attempt and even fail at a task? Berkeley Article The Teacher as a Baseball Coach 363 by Mr. Mac 3 sentences There's a young fellow named Luke who is bored with his life on a farm, living with his aunt and uncle because his father and mother were killed. There's this droid R2D2 and golden companion (C3PO) who wander on the planet with a message from a lovely princess who is being pursued by the expanding empire. Han Solo is a crusty merchant and smuggler who has a fast ship and they 6 sentences Now you do the 6 middle sentences 1. R2D2 shows the hologram of a young woman who pleads "Help me, OB1 Kenobi, you're my only hope" ... Luke looks at her and wants to help her (hey, so does every young man in the audience). 2. OB1 Kenobi is OLD BEN and he reveals that he was a Jedi and he needs to travel to save the young princess... but a young man will be needed to help Ben. Ah, yes, Luke. So they go to Tatooine to hire a smuggler. 3. Han Solo (a loner...get it, solo?) and his furry friend are hired to carry the foursome in pursuit of the captured princess. 4. They race in and catch the princess. 5. during the escape, OB1 gets killed (and he becomes more powerful). 6. Luke discovers that there is a strong rebellion and there is a weakness in the Evil Empire's plan to destroy planets. 3 sentences Luke destroys the star by using his intuition, which defeats technology and mindless devotion to evil. The empire is stopped but not forever. We get a hint about what will come in the future (certain evil guys get away... and they re-appear in the next movie.) |
| The Visual and Active Method of improving your SAT score In 1975 I scored 590 math and 570 verbal. A teacher at my school (Mrs.Maxwell) gave our class a hint: "Do every math problem in the book and you'll see the patterns that you need to follow. There are only about 100 types of math problems that they can throw at you. Next, learn EVERY word in the vocabulary list. You will save time. While other students are looking at the context to figure out the meaning, you will already know what inauspicious means." TIP 1: Give a reward. I sat that summer on a lake every morning for three hours, making words more animated. Since I liked to do math problems, I told myself, "You get to reward yourself with a page of fun math after you do a page of learning vocabulary." It worked. My vocabulary score jumped to 720 and my math score hit 800. TIP 2: check off words that you know. And know them well before you check them. I made myself imagine using the word in an interesting or funny or stupid situation. AEGIS means shield, so I imagined five tall letters AEGIS and I was standing behind them, protected from arrows. Tip 3: Do the easy problems first on the wirtten test. If you take the computer test, as some people do for GRE, then you have to answer each test question in order. Tip 4: Breathe deeply. Tip 5: Sleep a lot, at least 7 hours each night. Tip 6: Drink water and keep well hydrated. Now, let's look at the different ways of handling interest. Principal x interest rate = income $1000 x 5% = income Prin? x 5% = $50 $1000 x rate? = $50 Don't be lazy! Exercise your brain and look for different ways to ask the same question. What's the area of the circle? What's the circumference of the circle? If the diameter of the first circle is 2, what is the diameter of a second circle with TWICE the area of the first circle? If you have questions, call me for a free 5-minute talk to make sure you have learned something from this web site. I will also Why do you invite students to call you? Because I want you to visit my web site about BIBBI, the Building International Bridges By Internet project.... Learn about getting a PENPAL Three different ways to do probability 1. FIND THE TOTAL NUMBER. 40% of the people in class have blue eyes. 50 people have brown eyes and 10 people are grey-eyed. The brown and grey-eyed people represent 30% of the class. How many people are in the class? 2. THE ORDER IS IMPORTANT... There are 4 red balls and two yellow balls. What is the probability that I will pull out a red ball and then a yellow ball? 3. The order is NOT important. What is the probability of pulling out one red ball in the above example? NOW... where can you go to practice SAT, GRE and FCAT? www.number2.com PrincetonReview.com Kaplan.com sat-secrets.com freeVocabulary.com My BCC Class http://www.oocities.org/ teachers2teachers/satbcc http://www.secretsstudy guide.com/sat/ www.NewFCAT.com has information about "atttitude" and how to learn about different learning styles. Visit LookForPatterns.com for a change of pace. Visit MathForArtists.com if you hate math or if you enjoy the colors of math... TIPS FOR Writing the Essay (new in 2005) A good essay develops your opinion on a subject. You need to show good critical thinking... consider all possible angles! Don't exaggerate! Make it well organized. If you want to make three points, then don't give four! Try to avoid the standard "tell them what you will tell them, then tell them, then tell them what you told them." Example: There are four reasons why I would choose Miami over New York as a place to hold a family reunion. 1 Sunshine (give an example with a nice story) 2 Cost (another story) 3 Friendly people (example) 4 Easy to get around (example) It's nice to see family. Why not see family in a friendly affordable place where it's not raining and there's plenty of parking? "Movies, soap operas, TV shows and radio shows are competing for the minds of our young people. If we are going to have a chance at educating them, we need to use the same methods -- audio and visual." Paul A. Wagner in Collier's Magazine, 1949 |
| Visual Artistic Musical Movement Divergent Convergent Right/Left Geography Social Philosophy HOME BIBBI Connect to other cultures Click here for the Aiglon Academy (Luia Forbes Method) |
| Origins of the Visual and Active Method I've seen good teachers.... they have entertained me and engaged my imagination. As a teacher, I aim to catch people's Attention, grab their Interest, build a Desire to learn and then incite them to Act on that desire... It's called AIDA and it works in advertising to get products sold. I believe that cameras and video players and video recorders and CDs should be in every classroom... and so did Paul A. Wagner, a pioneer in the "visual aids" movement. Dig this: -- as a teacher-trainee, he played in class a recording of John Gielgud and then recorded his students when they tried to read the same passage in Julius Caesar. -- as a student on a college campus, he worked with other students to shoot films with a borrowed camera. A local lab donated the developing and the film was projected in the local theater. -- he arranged for a camera for students at Rollins College to shoot a newsreel with the news of the campus. This is standard material now on some high schools and in some middle schools where a special class is given a chance to use AV equipment.... But Paul A. Wagner did his work with cameras before World War 2. ... VIDEO THE TEACHER THis story is raised because some students (perhaps most students?) who find school boring would be energized if they were videotaping or digitizing their teacher. Why not let the students who are AUDIO (and not taking notes) do something useful, like videotaping you, the teacher? Video for TUTORING Many students forget what was taught and don't take good notes. It's a skill to take notes while someone is talking. So why not videotape the tutor? then twice the vocabulary can be delivered! - Video the student's performance - Let the student evaluate his own understanding - Let the student videotape again and improve his presentation - Give students videos to practice with at home... |
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| Estimate the length of that line (as far as you can see it). |
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| Look closely. What is this picture? Look at the people. Then call me for the answer. 954 646 8246 |
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| What is this? can you discuss the pros and cons of this image? What is the controversy? Can you look at this image without wondering why it is on this page? Call 954 646 8246 if you can't figure out what it is... |
| Bravo. You made it to the bottom of the web page. Do you want to learn how to make pages like this, using just a YAHOO.com ID? It's fun. Send a message to mistermath@comcast.net if you can't figure out the steps. <<< Mentor at work Go to INSTRUCTION |
| Visual Artistic Musical Movement Divergent Convergent Right/Left Geography Social Philosophy HOME BIBBI Connect to other cultures |
| You know what you are supposed to do. Yes, you do. Go to the web sites mentioned above... read, read, read and then read some more... Make it fun, use music, sing, use your imagination, act out the words... More Words with Word Roots |
| More activities to try for the Visual Learner... Visit an art museum Virtual Library on-line directory of museums throughout the world, organized by country. www.icom.org/vlmp/ world.html Go to an art museum on the Internet. www.moma.org www.metmuseum.org www.louvre.com www.louvre.fr/louvrea.htm www.hermitagemuseum.org |
| HOME Seminars by S. McCrea Go to Look For Patterns to find Multiple Ways of Learning Letter to Teachers Cell: 954.646.8246 globalcooling@comcast.net Other teaching web sites Visual And Active Store Multiple Intelligences and the FCAT MathForArtists.com Learning Styles The Fed Ex Arrow Welcome to www.VisualAndActive.com Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Lucky Accidents, Great Discoveries and the Prepared Mind Find the Pattern in the Maps GIFTED Students (click here) Look for Exercises (here is a list...) BIBBI Building International Bridges by the Internet GO TO ITALIAN SPANISH FRENCH Copyright 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006 by Steve McCrea |
| The Visual And Active Portfolio Method of Learning Languages (and other subjects) Described by S. McCrea This method is available for licensing. For information, 954-646-8246 Copyright 2003, 2006 by S. McCrea |
| Click here for the Aiglon Academy (Luia Forbes Method) Click here for worksheets for Learning Languages Additional sheets specific to English Learning with S. McCrea Scroll down to get the home page of Visual and Active SAT Tutoring |
The visual and active portfolio method of learning languages is based on the work of the following theorists and practictioners. Montessori, don't do for the student what the student can do for herself. Kay Latona, well, duh! (as in "isn't it obvious?") Jack Latona, backwards history and O'Neill's history Jared Diamond, synthesis and story telling Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence Thomas Friedman, The World is Flat Howard Gardner, Multiple Intelligences and learning styles Dawn Elrad, parking spaces, the shopping mall Ms. Bacallao, Hispanic Unity, parking spaces Lois Hedland, Teaching for Understanding (portfolios) Dennis Littky, the Three "R"s, mentoring, respect students by asking them to do "real work." Royal Society of Arts RSA CELTA (Certificate of English Language Teaching to Adults) Huetinck, Teaching methods for Secondary School Math Pat Harris, application of standard principles in family therapy and counseling, particularly "reframing" Marshall Thurber, frequency of contact, memorization of poetry Lee Brower, Positive Focus Luia Forbes, tutoring methods Dan Pink, new perspectives on right and left brain (A Whole New Mind) and entrepreneuring (Free Agent Nation, which is really about "how to apply what you learned in and out of school") Robert Ornstein, Whack on the Side of the Head (and other works) Rob Becker, perspectives of the cave man Dr. Nancy Snyderman, ABC TV special about "the Brain Game" Mrs. Z., HACC, the importance of portfolios SAT Tutoring systems (how to organize a tutoring session) FreeVocabulary.com, for the list approach Alison Gopnik, Berkeley, the teacher as bseball coach (see the Jan. 2005 article) Marc Greenblum, use of video and digital cameras in the classroom Paul Wagner, video pioneer, former president of Rollins College, use of film cameras on campus Dennis Yuzenas, visual and active methods Beakman, active methods Bill Nye (the Science Guy), visual methods Dr. Robert McAlister, how to run a science fair KnowYourType.com, Briggs Myers approach Brooks Emeny, People to People initiatives US Coast Guard, its boating course Dr. Michael Merzenich, therapies based on "brain plasticity," Brain Gym, positscience.com alz.org, Maintain Your Brain Madeleine Hunter, the MH Lesson Plan BreakthroughCollaborative.org (a way of getting students to teach other students.) Some of the work connected with the Visual and Active Portfolio Method appears on these web sites (developed by S. McCrea) MentorsOnVideos.com LookForPatterns.com TeachersToTeachers.com MathForArtists.com (learning styles) This page will give you a synopsis of the Visual and Active Portfolio Method. Specifics on how to best implement the system can be obtained by contacting S. McCrea. For information about licensing the use of this synthetic system, please contact 954-646-8246. |
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| "Mr. Mac" 954.646.8246 (954) OH-MUCHO mistermath@comcast.net email to cell phone s2314@tmail.com SKYPE: SteveFortLauderdale |
I came to know that “there is another way” after trying to teach 6 classes of 20 kids, 45 minutes per class. The focus was on presenting the material efficiently and effectively. The Madeleine Hunter method of teaching is the standard of “good teaching.” The research by Howard Gardner makes it clear that the Hunter method is effective in ensuring that more than one teaching method is used and more than one learning style is given a chance to “latch onto” the material. However, most people who study Gardner did not go one step farther. They didn’t read pages 161 and following about how to evaluate the learning. Even we who have taking the RSA course for CELTA (teaching English to Adults) have a false sense of knowing what to do next after presenting the material of the day. We know we have to check understanding and then move on to connect the material to real examples in English for practice. The effort is designed to ensure that materials are presented to a variety of learning styles. However, let’s take a moment to breathe and reflect on the purpose of the language school (and on any class): it is not to present an effective curriculum. The purpose of a school is to meet the needs of each individual student. The idea expressed by Gardner and put into action by Dennis Littky is to ensure that teaching changes to meet the needs of the individual student. The steps include: Adding an element of relationship. (cellphone and email contacts, invitations to lunch or snacks outside the classroom) Building the curriculum from relevance . (What does the student want to know or learn?) Creating opportunities to learn through action, through performances of understanding and mentoring.. Evaluation is not through written tests but through recorded exhibition so that the student has to feel and see the gaps and know where the next step is. Through feedback from the teacher and (if the student isn’t shy) from the audience (and self evaluation after looking at the video), the student then knows the next layer of learning that needs to take place. Independent Work Time takes up a larger part of the class schedule. Building a portfolio is more important than running through a check list of grammar and vocabulary (listen, speak, write, read). The expectations of the students are changed, because most people who go to Littky’s school have to be persuaded to see that studying only what you want to study will lead to a rigorous result. How can effective teaching and “Teaching for Understanding” (the code phrase developed by Lois Hetland, Ed.D, a disciple of Howard Gardner) be accepted by students who have come to expect “traditional classrooms”? Samples of a portfolio created by other students and standard “packages” showing what students have produced is a good example. Performances of Understanding can be produced at lower levels of proficiency, but this method is more obvious at advanced intermediate. EVERY PART OF THE CLASS CAN BE VIDEOTAPED for later review (since some students find it difficult to make notes and pay attention). The videos can be converted to a video on CD at a rate of about 2 hours per 700 megabytes. The key is found by making a parallel set of key standards. The Met Center, Littky’s group, does not teach Math, History, Science and English – they ask students to develop their own goals for qualitative and quantitative reasoning, empirical reasoning and communication. These areas can be supplemented with ESOL or EFL structure and and the EFL teacher can restate what needs to be sought by the students. In the Visual and Active Method, the students learn skill areas or interest areas, not artificial "chapters" related to grammar and vocabulary. (Some students will not accept this functional description of a language class, and they will need to pursue the making of a portfolio based on the structure of the textbook.) We can see some similarities – and therefore the materials developed by Littky have some relevance to all methods of teaching. The Madeleine Hunter model remains in place (to support students who want structure) and the classes have a textbook and class time (as they do in the Littky school). The key focus is on asking the student to seek outside learning opportunities that are connected to their aspirations. An executive at a power plant in Japan should spend time touring a plant… but do more. He should sit and shadow the mentor. The chapter on Mentoring in Littky’s book shows that there is not always a burden of mentoring… there is a feeling of adding a dimension to the mentor’s job. “I get paid to show another person why I love my work.” PORTFOLIO The focus for teachers could be on pushing and guiding students to develop a portfolio to show that students have demonstrated or performed understanding by making presentations. The exit portfolio can be a CD with performances on video showing basic skills of pronunciation and grammar (with students teaching units to the camera). The teacher can then ask students to go out to the “real world” to video themselves in situations with shopkeepers and volunteer situations. BAD EXAMPLE of mentoring I was studying Spanish in a small program in Chalchihuites Mexico near Zacatecas and the program offered an “experience in real Mexico” working side by side Mexican employees. I filed cards for 3 hours in the city hall. Yuck. It was safe because after the initial hand signals I didn’t have to talk or listen for the next three hours, yet I was “immersed” in the culture of the work place. GOOD EXAMPLE of mentoring One of my students, Johana, said that she loves being corrected by young kids. “They tell you exactly the truth.” The EFL teacher (Mr. Mac) got her the volunteer sheet for Virginia Shuman Young Magnet school and she plans to volunteer two hours next week in a school. That’s using English in a real sense. A photo of that opportunity or a video camera on Johana can be part of her portfolio. CLASSROOM NEEDS Small cameras if the student doesn’t have a digital camera. Burning software on a laptop in the school. It's best that the computer is NOT connected to the network. Portfolio system (clear plastic sleeves with three punched holes for storage in a three ring binder) needs to be set up to engage the students. List of potential mentoring and volunteering locations in the area of the school. SUMMARY Most students learn another language better in a classroom that is visual and active. Students can be pushed to create portfolios to show their understanding. (See Gardner, Littky and Hedland) Students can be pushed to find relationships outside the classroom to pursue interests and build their vocabulary through use in mentorships and volunteering positions. Video equipment will allow students to bring back information that they want to practice. Video equipment in their home allow them to practice pronunciation and listening on computers (see the series of CDs that I distribute to my students). This Visual and Active Portofolio Method can be licensed (if you wish to receive the consulting support by S. McCrea) |
| How does an English Language class differ from a Littky High School class? |
| English Class for International Students EFL students from Europe and Asia Generally the EFL students pay for their course They have had some success in schools and have expectations about what makes a “good school” and a “good class” Expectations about how they will be tested |
| Littky High School High School kids in Providence The state pays for the course Littky's high school students often have had ittle success in schools or (if they come from home schools) no expectations about having one teacher to lead them in many directions Expectations of failure when they will be tested |
| How is an English Language class similar to a Littky High School class? |
| English Class for International Students EFL students from Europe and Asia Expect tests to be written Feel unsure at first about why the course is not based on a textbook See a big crowd at a school and assume it must be a good school because so many kids are there Look at the small classroom and wonder “I’m paying to sit by myself and create a program of study? I thought they knew what I should be learning.” |
| Littky High School High School kids in Providence Expect tests to be written Feel unsure at first about why the course is not based on a textbook “This isn’t a real school” See a big crowd at a school and assume it must be a good school because so many kids are there (How can this be a real high school when there is no football team?) Look at the small classroom and wonder, “Why are you asking me what I want to learn? Isn’t this a school where I have to listen to you?” |
| Seminars S. McCrea is available for training staff in the use of the Visual and Active Method. Since some organizations don't use the vocabulary of portfolios, the seminar can be rescaled to the vocabulary limitations of the audience. See below for a description of the Communication Workshop |
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TITLE: “How to Improve Communication Using All Seven Ways of Learning.” 1. Discussion of the importance of right and left brain. What function does the right brain primary serve? What function does the left brain primarily serve? 2. Discussion of personality types. Seven Ways of Learning, Knowyourtype.com as the source of info plus male/female brain differences. What possible difficulties can we anticipate? How can we adapt our communication to reach all types of learning styles? 3. Exercise with magnetic sticks to demonstrate other learning styles. 4. If there is time, the discussion could open up with some readings (homework for those who want the homework) and a chance to discuss by email some of the topics we covered in the training. The more interesting aspects of the work of Thomas Friedman and Dan Pink (which are perhaps less specific for the work place) can be left for people to correspond with me about. I’m also interested in interviewing anyone who wants to be a mentor on video (see www.MentorsOnVideo.com). For a Procedure about How to Collect a Video, see my memo to a potential client LOOK VIDEO page |
| Key quotes from Gardner Multiple Intelligences is most usefully invoked in the service of two educational goals. The first is to help students achieve certain valued adult roles or end-states. If one wants everyone to be able to engage in artistic activities, it makes sense to develop linguistic intelligence for the poet, spatial intelligence for the graphic artist and sculptor, movement intelligence for the dancer and musical intelligence for the composer. If we want everyone to be civil, then it is important to develop the personal intelligences. The second goal is to help students master certain curricular materials. Students might be encouraged to take a course in biology so as to better understand the development of the living world. If individuals indeed have different kinds of minds, with varied strengths, interests and strategies, then it is worth considering whether pivotal curricular materials like biology could be taught AND ASSESSED in a variety of ways. Intelligence Reframed, p. 167 Performances of Understanding When it comes to probing a student’s understanding of evolution, the shrewd pedagogue looks beyond the mastery of dictionary definitions or the recitation of textbook examples. A student demonstrates or “performs” his understanding when he can examine a range of species found in different ecological niches and speculate about the reasons for their particular ensemble of traits. A student performs her understanding of the Holocaust when she can compare events in a Nazi concentration camp to such contemporary genocidal events as those in Bosnia, Kosovo or Rwanda in the 1990s. “Measures of understanding” may seem demanding, particularly in contract to current, often superficial, efforts to measure what students know and are able to do. And, indeed, recourse to performing one’s understanding is likely to stress students, teachers, and parents, who have grown accustomed to traditional ways of doing(or NOT doing) things. Nonetheless, a performance approach to understanding is justified. Instead of mastering content, one thinks about the reason why a particular content is being taught and how best to display one’s comprehension of this content in a publicly accessible way. When students realize they will have to apply knowledge and demonstrate insights in a public form, they assume a more active stance to the material, seeking to exercise their “performance muscles” whenever possible. |
| An interesting article Sunday Morning CBS with Charles Osgood is another good piece… Retraining The Brain Jan. 15, 2006 _________________________ (CBS) It is hard to tell by watching her, but 4-year old Harper Thomas is participating in what may be a medical revolution. So are Betty and Ernie Radez, aged 87 and 85, respectively. All three are using cutting edge therapies to rewire their brains. Treating serious medical conditions with neither drugs nor surgery. "Everybody thinks that the answers to the ills of humankind lie with pharmacology, gene therapy or stem cells, right?" asks neuroscientist Dr. Michael Merzenich. "That's where the answers are, but another set of answers is coming from a surprising source; right? It's the use, it's the understanding of the process of the brain," Merzenich tells CBS News correspondent John Blackstone. Merzenich is a leading developer of therapies based on what's called brain plasticity, which he defines as, "the capacity of the brain to change itself. It actually changes physically, functionally, in ways that you can measure." A treatment based on brain plasticity is helping Harper Thomas. She was born with cerebral palsy, largely paralyzed on her right side. Now her mother, Laura, sees her doing the impossible. "I was surprised by all of this," Laura says. "The therapy itself, just, you know, the results that we've gotten." Harper is doing what's called Constraint Induced or "CI" Therapy. Her "good" hand is restrained, forcing her to use her "bad" hand for a series of exercises. Little by little the therapy rebuilds her brain, enabling it to send signals to her once paralyzed limbs. "From what I've been told, the brain has an amazing power of re-circuiting and that's what Harper's doing every day with the therapies and things that we do with her," Laura says. "She's re-circuiting and using parts of her brain that she might not have used." CI therapy was designed by Dr. Edward Taub at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. "There are no drugs and no surgery involved," Taub says. "Nevertheless you get a very substantial treatment effect without any side effects." Though Taub says Harper will never be totally cured, she now has about 70 percent normal use of her arm. For the first time in her life, she can throw a ball, and feed herself with a fork. "She's able to pick up toys, you know, put them in bags, carry heavy bags across the room. She's able to open doors. We've seen that on occasion. She's just been wonderful," Laura remarks, adding that Harper can also dress herself, something she was unable to do in the past. Ernie and Betty Radez have been married for more than 60 years. But recently, Ernie watched, and worried, as his wife's memory failed her. "She'll talk about something and look for a word, and she'd look at me and wait for me to tell her what the word was," Ernie explains. He says that while physically present, Betty's mental capabilities betrayed her. "The tough part of it was to watch her and know that she was thinking, but it didn't come out," Ernie says. For millions of Americans memory loss has seemed an unavoidable part of aging. But when Ernie learned their care facility would be a test site for a memory enhancement program, he signed up both of them. They became testers for the "Brain Gym," a computer program designed to exercise the part of the brain used for memory. Betty explains that when searching for the right words to say, "I couldn't get them out. I was just numb. And I'm just coming back now and it came back through this experience." Ernie adds, "I'm not a doctor, but there's just no question in my mind of what it's helped both of us. So it's really nice for me to have her back as far as she is, and she's, I'd say, she's about 90 percent now." When asked if the Brain Gym served as a fountain of youth, Merzenich, who developed the program and founded the company Posit Science, says, "Well, this is a part of a solution." He adds, "This can have an incredible impact, not just from the point of view of the quality of life of older people but sustaining people with vitality, with vigor." Merzenich says scientists are learning to harness the brain's plasticity and encouraging healthy parts of the brain to take on jobs they don't usually do. According to Merzenich, learning new cognitive skills can be achieved at any age. "Absolutely," he says, "in fact, very strong positive improvements in basic faculties can be achieved at any age." Merzenich's company, Posit Science, has begun selling the Brain Gym computer program and the potential market is huge. By the time they reach age 85 nearly half of Americans will suffer from dementia. Merzenich wants to prove, scientifically, that Brain Gym can help them. So scientists at Stanford University tested the program on people with memory problems. Ruth Speigel has a disorder called mild cognitive impairment. Using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI), scientists can watch the brain at work. Dr John Gabrieli set up the study to see if the brain gym can actually change the way an aging brain remembers. "We can see the presence or absence of memory," Gabrieli explains. "We can see memories of different kinds." Gabrieli says, "We're very hopeful. I mean, it's at a very early stage and these are really the first glimpses of how an older person might, you know, change their brain to improve their memory." Whether or not Brain Gym is proven to work, Gabrieli knows the theory is sound. He studied how the brains of children with dyslexia changed when they used another of Merzenich's brain exercise computer programs. The programs, a sort of mental weight lifting, stimulated the children's brains and made a sizeable difference in their reading skills. "It is a large change, of course. Their reading scores also improved, that's the bottom line," Gabrieli says of the children. "We feel like we're lucky explorers, you know, getting to see on topic after topic the first images of the human mind," Gabrieli intimates. For Merzenich, developing the Brain Gym is a professional accomplishment driven by a painful, personal experience. "I watched my own mother decline in Alzheimer's disease," Merzenich says. "It's crucial that this science be brought out of the laboratory into the world to help people and the need is massive," he says. "That's what this is all about." Taub agrees, adding that the research "needs to be further explored." Back in Birmingham, Taub says treatments that retrain the brain have been proven useful in treating strokes, brain injuries, even helping recovery from hip replacement. He knows, however, there remains skepticism about miracle cures that do not depend on drugs or surgery. "There are treatments for lots and lots of conditions that are not part of mainstream treatments, but are effective," Taub says. "You don't have to go into complete speculation and looking at blue skies. It's here, and it just needs to be used more." As science learns more about the brain's capacity to rewire itself, instead of using drugs, doctors may increasingly try teaching old brains new tricks. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories /2006/01/15/sunday/main 1209916.shtml http://www.humboldt.edu /~tha1/ hunter-eei.html#direct (Madeline Hunter method) AN OUTLINE OF DIRECT INSTRUCTION objectives standards anticipatory set teaching input modeling check for understanding guided practice/monitoring closure independent practice Before the lesson is prepared, the teacher should have a clear idea of what the teaching objectives are. What, specifically, should the student be able to do, understand, care about as a result of the teaching. informal. Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives which is shown below, gives an idea of the terms used in an instructional objective. See Robert Mager [library catalog] on behavioral objectives if writing specificity is required. The teacher needs to know what standards of performance are to be expected and when pupils will be held accountable forwhat is expected. The pupils should be informed about the standards of performance. Standards: an explanation of the type of lesson to be presented, procedures to be followed, and behavioral expectations related to it, what the students are expected to do, what knowledge or skills are to be demonstrated and in what manner. Anticipatory set or Set Induction: sometimes called a "hook" to grab the student's attention: actions and statements by the teacher to relate the experiences of the students to the objectives of the lesson. To put students into a receptive frame of mind. to focus student attention on the lesson. to create an organizing framework for the ideas, principles, or information that is to follow (c.f., the teaching strategy called "advance organizers"). to extend the understanding and the application of abstract ideas through the use of example or analogy...used any time a different activity or new concept is to be introduced. Teaching/presentation: includes Input, Modeling, and Checking for Understanding. Input: The teacher provides the information needed for students to gain the knowledge or skill through lecture, film, tape, video, pictures, etc. Modeling: Once the material has been presented, the teacher uses it to show students examples of what is expected as an end product of their work. The critical aspects are explained through labeling, categorizing, comparing, etc. Students are taken to the application level (problem-solving, comparison, summarizing, etc.) Checking for Understanding: Determination of whether students have "got it" before proceeding. It is essential that students practice doing it right so the teacher must know that students understand before proceeding to practice. If there is any doubt that the class has not understood, the concept/skill should be retaught before practice begins. Questioning strategies: asking questions that go beyond mere recall to probe for the higher levels of understanding...to ensure memory network binding and transfer. Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives provides a structure for questioning that is hierarchical and cumulative. [See the end of this section for a summary of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.] It provides guidance to the teacher in structuring questions at the level of proximal development, i.e., a level at which the pupil is prepared to cope. Questions progress from the lowest to the highest of the six levels of the cognitive domain of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. [LINK PENDING See section following this outline for an exposition of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains of educational objectives.] [For questioning strategies, such as Wait Time (allowing all pupils the time necessary to process and develop a response to a question before placing the question with a specific pupil) see GESA materials. GESA/TESA provide a practical model for questioning.] Guided practice: An opportunity for each student to demonstrate grasp of new learning by working through an activity or exercise under the teacher's direct supervision. The teacher moves around the room to determine the level of mastery and to provide individual remediation as needed. [Fred Jones'"praise, prompt, and leave" is suggested as a strategy to be used in guided practice.] Closure: Those actions or statements by a teacher that are designed to bring a lessor presentation to an appropriate conclusion. Used to help students bring things together in their own minds, to make sense out of what has just been taught. "Any questions? No. OK, let's move on" is not closure. Closure is used: to cue students to the fact that they have arrived at an important point in the lesson or the end of a lesson, to help organize student learning, to help form a coherent picture, to consolidate, eliminate confusion and frustration, etc., to reinforce the major points to be learned...to help establish the network of thought relationships that provide a number of possibilities for cues for retrieval. Closure is the act of reviewing and clarifying the key points of a lesson, tying them together into a coherent whole, and ensuring their utility in application by securing them in the student's conceptual network. Independent practice: Once pupils have mastered the content or skill, it is time to provide for reinforcement practice. It is provided on a repeating schedule so that the learning is not forgotten. It may be home work or group or individual work in class. It can be utilized as an element in a subsequent project. It should provide for decontextualization: enough different contexts so that the skill/concept may be applied to any relevant situation...not only the context in which it was originally learned. The failure to do this is responsible for most student failure to be able to apply something learned. Summary: You told them what you were going to tell them with set, you tell them with presentation, you demonstrate what you want them to do with modeling, you see if they understand what you've told them with checking for understanding, and you tell them what you've told them by tying it all together with closure. |
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Features of the Visual and Active Portfolio Method Adding an element of relationship. (cellphone and email contacts, invitations to lunch or snacks outside the classroom) Building the curriculum from relevance. (What does the student want to know or learn?) Creating opportunities to learn through action, through performances of understanding and mentoring.. Evaluation is through recorded exhibition so that the student has to feel and see the gaps and know where the next step is. Independent Work Time takes up a larger part of the class schedule. Building a portfolio is more important than running through a check list of grammar and vocabulary (listen, speak, write, read). EVERY PART OF THE CLASS CAN BE VIDEOTAPED for later review (since some students find it difficult to make notes and pay attention). The videos can be converted to a video on CD at a rate of about 2 hours per 700 megabytes. The individual education plan for each student is built around a system that collects materials for a portfolio. For procedures about "how to use a camera," see LookVideo page (where there is a pronunciation rubric). |
| The Gifted Program A Letter To the Gifted Student (and almost everybody is gifted in some way) The idea behind a “Program for Gifted Students” is to give you a variety of challenges and to ask you to apply your skills to unfamiliar situations. You can read more about “what does it mean to be gifted” by searching GOOGLE: Search: “teaching the gifted child” Please ask questions: 954 OH MUCHO 954-646-8246 Even if nobody has said, “You are a gifted child because you scored 125 on the XYZ scale,” you can still be gifted. Almost everybody has a gift. Many people have several gifts. Your challenges are: a) Can you discover your gifts? b) Can you use your gifts? c) Can you develop your gifts? If you want some more guidelines and direction, ask a teacher. If no teacher has time to assist you, call me. Mr. Mac 954 OH MUCHO mistermath@comcast.net “What should I do?” and “Can you help me find a project to do?” are the two questions I hear most often. Remember: Turn off the TV and turn off the video game. The best project is the project that comes out of your head. Write about or talk about or think about something that bothers you. Describe a problem and then describe a solution. That’s the best work. Good luck. Get to work. Start playing. Have fun. And be serious about your fun. Make notes and talk to a camera about your thoughts and your projects. collect your thoughts in your IWTRT book I Want To Remember This IWTRT Rubric or Checklist for a Performance of Understanding Based on the work of Lois Hetland and others Evaluation of the Student’s Performance of Understanding Name of Student: _____________________________________ Date: ______________ Topic for Performance of Understanding: ______________________________ Checklist for Presentations (based on work by Patrica Crosby and Pamela Heinz) Information Gains attention of the audience with an interesting detail ___ The student explains why the topic is interesting to him/her ___ Uses gestures to enhance the speech ___ Shows enthusiasm about the topic ___ Maintains eye contact with the audience ___ The student’s speech is clear and audible ___ The speech is not rushed (the student speaks at an appropriate pace) ___ Answers questions from the audience ___ Organization Uses visual materials to clarify important points ___ Communicates beginning, middle and end of the presentation ___ Many specific words are used ___ (“glamorous” or “fabulous” rather than “nice” or “good”) Main ideas are supported with details ___ According to Howard Gardner, “Measures of understanding” may seem demanding, particularly in contract to current, often superficial, efforts to measure what students know and are able to do. And, indeed, recourse to performing one’s understanding is likely to stress students, teachers, and parents, who have grown accustomed to traditional ways of doing (or NOT doing) things. Nonetheless, a performance approach to understanding is justified. Instead of mastering content, one thinks about the reason why a particular content is being taught and how best to display one’s comprehension of this content in a publicly accessible way. When students realize they will have to apply knowledge and demonstrate insights in a public form, they assume a more active stance to the material, seeking to exercise their “performance muscles” whenever possible. http://www.oocities.org/teachers2teachers/newfcatexpand.html How to use the camera in the classroom: See the recommended procedures on LookVideo |
| Links for gifted programs Teaching Young Gifted Children in the Regular ClassroomGeneral Principles for Teaching Young Gifted Children ericec.org/digests/e595.html Teaching Gifted ChildrenRenzulli, Joseph S. (2000). The Multiple menu model: a practical guide for developing ... creativeteaching.org/ teaching_gifted_ children.htm Professional Training for Teachers of the Gifted and Talented" The Role of the Teacher of Gifted and Creative Children." In PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION OF THE GIFTED, edited by WB Barbe and JS Renzulli. ... www.kidsource.com/kidsource/ content2/professional.gifted.html Education - Gifted IndexParents will find these suggestions helpful when they work with their child's teacher. Should Gifted Students Be Grade-Advanced? ... www.kidsource.com/kidsource/ pages/ed.gifted.html Gifted Children and Gifted Education Publisher - Prufrock PressFree Online Resources for Teachers and Parents of Gifted Children. www.prufrock.com/ Gifted Child Today - Leading Gifted Education Journal for Teachers ... www.prufrock.com/client/client_pages/ prufrock_jm_giftchild.cfm Teaching Gifted Children www.canteach.ca/links/linkgifted.html Gifted EducationA special education resource guide for teaching gifted children. Prepared by Ministry of Ed. of British Columbia. specialed.about.com/od/giftedness/ Council for Exceptional Children... www.cec.sped.org/ Teachers ResourcesThe Hollingworth Center for Highly Gifted Children www.ri.net/gifted_talented/teachers.html Students: Read some of these pages and then write to me. Tell me about the main idea of these documents. (Mr. Mac, why are you asking us to do these tasks? REPLY: In Dennis Littky's schools, BigPicture.org and Metcenter.org, the students are asked to describe their favorite topics and then the academic work is built around the interests fo the students. I want the Gifted Student Program to follow the same approach. I will suggest topics for your attention but it is up to you to challenge yourself with the level of difficulty.) |
| Sometimes it is necessary to produce a certificate or give a reward to a student to push them to achieve or make a video. Here is an example of a certificate of achievement. Certificate of Achievement for Carlos and Priscilla For Bravery They met two local people at a café on Friday at 3:30 pm and they were still talking there when I visited them at 4:30 pm. Points: 2 for each person. Points can be redeemed for candy or other prizes… _______________________________ Steve McCrea (Creator of Points) This is not an official activity. |
| EXAMPLES From a class on February 16, 2006 These are notes for a class that happened yesterday I walked in and asked each person to think about a topic. "Each person will talk for 2 minutes about any subject. You choose." We took about 10 minutes for the students to feel comfortable with the idea... I even recorded a short talk about the best city in Central Florida (I wanted to get the student's inner mind talking like this: "Oh, the teacher did it, so I need to record something now.") Then I asked each person to take turns with the camera. We added new words like "tripod" and "focus". After each person spoke, I wrote errors on the whiteboard and we went over pronunciation problems . "Can we watch the videos"? they asked. They are like 6th graders. It is sweet. After watching again and re-noticing the errors, I asked, "Do you know how to copy these pictures on a CD?" Two students wanted to learn how to transfer photos from a computer to a CD, so a third student taught them. My input was 2 blank cds and two paper covers, plus the use of a laptop comptuer with CD writing software and an interface for accepting a camera's memory card, plus a digital camera. Very animated students and they were happy to get copies on CD. Fabulous use of technology and the "method" |
| For Teachers Why should teachers videotape their lessons? Why should we videotape students and their exhibitions? http://learnweb.harvard.edu/alps/tfu/info3e.cfm My main criticism of the FCAT and SAT is that these written tests are incomplete. A written test is a partial snapshot and not a complete picture. To prepare for a test, most tutoring sessions can be recorded for the student to learn from… especially from their own statements and errors. Performances of Understanding and portfolios are the better way to judge and measure understanding… ------------------------ Students might acquire pieces of knowledge from books and lectures, but without the opportunity to apply that knowledge in a variety of situations with guidance from a knowledgable coach, they are not likely to develop understanding. Performances of understanding, or understanding performances, are the activities that give students those opportunities. Performances of understanding require students to go beyond the information given to create something new by reshaping, expanding, extrapolating from, applying, and building on what they already know. The best performances of understanding help students both develop and demonstrate their understanding. Key Features of Performances of Understanding Performances of understanding are activities which require students to use what they know in new ways or situations to build their understanding of unit topics. In performances of understanding students reshape, expand on, extrapolate from, and apply what they already know. Such performances challenge students' misconceptions, stereotypes, and tendencies toward rigid thinking. Performances of understanding help students build and demonstrate their understanding, Although a "performance" might sound like a final event, performances of understanding are principally learning activities. They give both you and your students a chance to see their understanding develop in new and challenging situations over time. Performances of understanding require students to show their understanding in an observable way. They make students' thinking visible. It is not enough for students to reshape, expand, extrapolate from, and apply their knowledge in the privacy of their own thoughts. While it is conceivable that a student could understand without performing, such an understanding would be untried, possibly fragile, and virtually impossible to assess. It is a little like the difference between a daydream about how you would like to behave in a particular situation versus how you actually behave when the situation arises: the daydream and reality might turn out to be similar, but then again they might not. So performances of understanding involve students in publicly demonstrating their understanding. (NOTE by the tutor: This is why a portfolio can contain a videotaped exhibition or presentation by the student. I videotape my students and myself to give students a model for them to study and emulate.) ===================== For discussion Please call 954 646 8246 with your comments. S Mac, Tutor mistermath@comcast.net For more information, contact Steve at 954 646 8246 Here is an exercise Write the names of mountains, rivers, regions and cities that you know in Italy. Go ahead, do this now. Now. Don't wait. If you read ahead, you will spoil the experience for yourself. +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ DID YOU GET 16 NAMES ON A PIECE OF PAPER? OKAY... CONTINUE READING. If you like, draw a map of Italy and place the names in approximate location to each other. If you can do this well, you are a visual learner and performer. Now do the same exercise with South America, India and China. Ah ha! Are you Eurocentric too? I am. What can we do about this situation? Write to me. s2314@tmail.com A Linear, Sequential presentation of the Visual and Active Method The following year-by-year description helps us see how, through small innovations, our view of "how to learn" has changed -- or should have changed. 1980 (approximately) A Whack on the Side of the Head (Robert Oech's creativity exercises -- it is possible to generate a creative mind or to train people to be more creative and open minded) 1984 (approximately) Howard Gardner publishes his concepts about several ways of learning (and several ways of teaching to reach those people. 1995 (approx) Dennis Littky opened "the Met" www.MetCenter.org in Providence, Rhode Island. The school experimented with asking students to study their passions. 1998 Discover Magazine on TV had a show about Brain Differences. Rob Becker appeared. 1998 (approximately) I saw Rob Becker in his one man show, Defending the Caveman, in Fort Lauderdale. 2000 Dan Pink starts the research for Free Agent Nation. The idea is basic: when you own your own business, you are often more in control of your working conditions. The difference between opening a bsiness in 1950 and 2000 is that now we have hybrid businesses (some of us get health care plans from a part time job while working at a home-based business). 2002 June Brain Game aired. Dr. Nancy Snyderman (host) presented information about gender differences in brain structure and strengths (women tend to sense differences in temperature, hear better, ,whle men tend to have better 3-D visualization) 2003 January A kid, Mike, in Hallandale Adult Community Center, a second chance High School, said, "This is cool. It's like math that is here. We get to do it math. This is Physical Math." Okay, I wanted to call it visual math and active math. 2005 January Alison Gopnik describes how we learn (NY Times article). The best teacher is a coach, not a lecturer. A Whole New Mind: Dan Pink presented the Right/Left Brain differences in a new way, with a focus on design (a Masters in Fine Arts is the NEW MBA). 2005 Marshall Thurber starts the Positive Deviant Network. Read that again. It's a positive thing. (Think about the concept of "standard deviation" and four sigmas.) How can teachers pull these pieces together in the classroom? To left-brain learners, this list is scattered, all over the room, unorganized and hardly related to whatever we are studying. (Why is it important to mention Bangalore, Right Brain thinking, social style of learning and positive deviance when I'm in a class about muscle therapy or economics? I'm just here to get my master's degree so I can get a raise.). To right-brained learners, this list is just the beginning of hte discussion. Students that want to add to my list get it (they're probably right-brained): school is best when it is about learning, not about a particular subject. Learning about how to learn more efficiently is the best use of class time What would happen if a teacher introduced Dan Pink's "six elements" into the classroom? What if every student in a class expected to include China, India and countries in South America in the class discussion? (in the way that we include England, France and Itlyt in If you are a substitute teacher, what is your responsibility to ensure that students get a chance to review some of the topics addressed on this page? What are the connections between the forces that shape our world? |
| See examples of Visual and Active teaching and the use of technology in the classroom... Go to TeachersToTeachers.com and click on the movies. Or go to CLIP A NEWSPAPER |
| These topics need to be placed in Chronological Order This section is under construction The visual and active portfolio method of learning languages is based on the work of the following theorists and practictioners. Montessori, don't do for the student what the student can do for herself. Kay Latona, well, duh! (as in "isn't it obvious?") Jack Latona, backwards history and O'Neill's history Jared Diamond, synthesis and story telling Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence Thomas Friedman, The World is Flat Howard Gardner, Multiple Intelligences and learning styles Dawn Elrad, parking spaces, the shopping mall Ms. Bacallao, Hispanic Unity, parking spaces Lois Hedland, Teaching for Understanding (portfolios) Dennis Littky, the Three "R"s, mentoring, respect students by asking them to do "real work." Royal Society of Arts RSA CELTA (Certificate of English Language Teaching to Adults) Huetinck, Teaching methods for Secondary School Math Pat Harris, application of standard principles in family therapy and counseling, particularly "reframing" Marshall Thurber, frequency of contact, memorization of poetry Lee Brower, Positive Focus Luia Forbes, tutoring methods Dan Pink, new perspectives on right and left brain (A Whole New Mind) and entrepreneuring (Free Agent Nation, which is really about "how to apply what you learned in and out of school") Robert Ornstein, Whack on the Side of the Head (and other works) Rob Becker, perspectives of the cave man Dr. Nancy Snyderman, ABC TV special about "the Brain Game" Mrs. Z., HACC, the importance of portfolios SAT Tutoring systems (how to organize a tutoring session) FreeVocabulary.com, for the list approach Alison Gopnik, Berkeley, the teacher as bseball coach (see the Jan. 2005 article) Marc Greenblum, use of video and digital cameras in the classroom Paul Wagner, video pioneer, former president of Rollins College, use of film cameras on campus Dennis Yuzenas, visual and active methods Beakman, active methods Bill Nye (the Science Guy), visual methods Dr. Robert McAlister, how to run a science fair KnowYourType.com, Briggs Myers approach Brooks Emeny, People to People initiatives US Coast Guard, its boating course Dr. Michael Merzenich, therapies based on "brain plasticity," Brain Gym, positscience.com alz.org, Maintain Your Brain Madeleine Hunter, the MH Lesson Plan BreakthroughCollaborative.org (a way of getting students to teach other students.) Some of the work connected with the Visual and Active Portfolio Method appears on these web sites (developed by S. McCrea) MentorsOnVideos.com LookForPatterns.com TeachersToTeachers.com MathForArtists.com (learning styles) |
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| What if teachers brought together the developments and discoveries since 1980? In their classrooms? (scroll down) |
| What if teachers brought together the developments and discoveries since 1980? In their classrooms? |
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| Dennis Littky is an underappreciated practical educator. His team at BigPicture.org has put into action many of the new developments and innovations uncovered since 1980. See a transcript from April 2005 at whatshouldstudentslearn.com and read his book The Big Picture: Education is Everyobody's Business. His small schools (120 students per school) have received support from the Gates Foundation. Bill Gates advocates smaller schools and THE NEW THREE Rs (Rigor, Relevance and Relationships), a concept developed by Dennis Littky. Litttky's writings have consolidated much of the information discussed on this page. |
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| Let's start with assumptions that most people born before 1950 have about school and learning: 1) If you pay attention in school and do the work, you will be a success. 2) If you can't do something (if you can't perform a skill like writing or reading with good comprehension), then you lack the brain power or you weren't using your natural abilities. You weren't paying attention. 3) The remedy (if I don't understand) is to repeat and repeat until you get it right. It's not the teacher's fault... I just need to keep trying until I get it. If teachers bring in the innovations of the 1970s, 1980s and later, they would introduce the following changes in their classrooms: 1. Teachers would collect their own lectures or performances of understanding (and distribute CDs with audio tracks) to allow audio learners to pick up the information. Teachers would learn how to use Digital Video, how to store videos and how to edit and share videos on CD. 2. All students would build portfolios of their performances and artifacts that show understanding. Written tests would not be very important. Videotaped performances of understanding would be important. 3. Teachers would invite mentors into the classroom. (Oh! That will mean there is less time for lectures and the teacher might lose control of the class). Teachers could give academic credit for time spent in internships outside the classroom. 4. Teachers would have dinner with each tudent, meet the parents and other people who give the student emotional and nurturing support. teachers would share email addresses and exchange cell numbers. 5. Teachers would visit a BigPicture.org school and learn how these topics come together in the classroom. |
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| A Prayer for Students Let this course be an opportunty for me to prepare for a world that I don't yet live in. Let me ask questions that use the new insights about brain research to help the teacher discover new ways of teaching. I seek an open mind to viewpoints from Asia, Africa and South America. Help me overcome my Eurocentric and North American focus. What would Dan Pink say right now? |
| A Prayer for Teachers What can I do better today in my class? What insight or innovation can I bring into the class that would have been unimaginable 20 years ago? What would Howard Gardner suggest to me now to reach the social learner? What exercise can i introduce to engage the visual and audio learners? How can I use technology to enhance the understanding of my students? What method should I modify? How can i improve my presentation and how can I use brain research to support changes in my teaching style? |
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