Scientific Enlightenment, Div. One Book 2: Human Enlightenment of the First Axial 2.B.1. A genealogy of the philosophic enlightenment in classical Greece Chapter 5: Ancient Pythagoreanism ACADEMY | previous section | Table of Content | next section | GALLERY

2007 by Lawrence Chin. Unfinished

The enormity of legends surrounding Pythagoras and Pythagoreanism has obscured the original content of Pythagoreanism. The German scholar of classics Walter Burkert has done an extensive study of ancient -- the earliest, the "true" -- Pythagoreanism in his Weisheit und Wissenschaft. He regards the outlandish legends about Pythagoras as the oldest stratum of the tradition about Pythagoras and the sometimes ridiculous akusmata (akousmata) as genuinely passed down from Pythagoras and his immediate successors, so that these in fact constitute our best source of knowledge about Pythagoras the person and Pythagoreanism as it originally was.

While Pythagoras is today remembered as a master mathematician, he was at his own time more known for his notion of metempsychosis and some outlandish wonder-working, which includes: being seen at two places at the same time (at Croton and Metapont); being seen in Olympia as having a golden thigh; being greeted by the river Kasas as he was traversing it; biting a poisonous snake to death; predicting, when the ship was about to dock, that there were corpses on board; predicting the onset of civil war (στάσις) and then disappearing; being named by the Crotonians as Απόλλων Υπερβόρειος . This last legend relates to the story that Pythagoras once received Abaris, the priest of Apollo, and took from him an arrow to ride on it, thus showing that he is the Hyperborean Apollo (Hyperboreische Apollon). (Porphyry recounts a different version in which Pythagoras showed Abaris his golden thigh as confirmation.) Another important legend of Pythagoras is his katabasis: Hieronymos recounted Pythagoras' descent to the Hades and seeing the souls of Homer and Hesiod atoning for what they had said of the gods, and Hermippos (of Smyrna, a biographer in Alexandria during the second half of the third century B.C.) told that Pythagoras went to the underworld to build a house there and instructed his mother to write down what had happened and to reckon time, and that, after a considerable time, he returned to earth an emaciated figure. Burkert relates the purpose of the legends with the teaching of metempsychosis:

Wenn der historische Pythagoras die Seelenwanderung lehrte, mußte eben dieser historische Pythagoras übermenschliche Weisheit beanspruchen, mußte sich zum Beispiel setzen und in der Ilias wiederfinden, und wenn er dies glaubhaft machen wollte, mußte er -- Wunder tun (p. 123).

If the historical Pythagoras taught the migration of the soul, this historical Pythagoras must lay claim to super-human wisdom, set himself as an example, and be found again in the Illias, and if he wanted to do all this credibly, he must -- do wonders.

Furthermore, upon careful analysis, Burkert reveals that embedded within many of these legends were rather primitive ecstatic shamanic experiences and shamanic cults of particular gods. Together with Aristeas, Abaris, and Epimenides, Pythagoras was in fact a great shamanic figure. For example, flying on arrow -- the same "myth" was told of Abaris -- was a symbolism of shamanic ecstasy (p. 127). The legends of katabasis were obviously relating episodes of ecstasy, with the image of emaciation referring to the fasting one had to undergo in order to concentrate one's energy for the shamanic flight. Even Pythagoras' golden thigh became an intelligible symbolism in the context of shamanism:

Doch wenn man sieht, wie in der mythischen Beschreibung der Initiation eines schamanen mit Regelmäßigkeit Zerstückelung des Körpers und neue Zusammensetzung wiederkehren, wobei einzelne Organe durch neue ersetzt werden, wenn insbesondere Metallstücke verschiedener Art zum Schamenenkostüm gehören, dann wird man doch wohl auch den Goldschenkel des Pythagoras in dieser Weise verstehen: als Zeichen der Initiation des göttlichen Schamanen, der Wiedergeburt zu erhöhtem Dasein (p. 134).

If one sees how in the mythical description of the initiation of a shaman the fragmentation of the body and its reconstitution keep recurring, where individual organs are replaced by new ones; if in particular metal pieces of various kinds belong to the shaman's costumes, then one will understand well also the golden thigh of Pythagoras in such wise: as the sign of the initiation of a divine shaman, of rebirth to a higher grade of existence.

Just as a shaman elsewhere was often identified with the god with whom he was intimately connected and of whom he served as the messenger, so the Greek "shamans" were often identified with the gods they served; and to seek an oracle from the gods, they had to get into a trance as did shamans elsewhere. It is in this connection that Pythagoras' relationship with Apollo should be understood. Pythagoras was a "shaman" of Apollo while Epimenides was a "shaman" of Zeus. Apollo was said to linger in Metapont in the form of Pythagoras and there was a strong presence of Pythagoreans in Metapont known for the cult of Apollo.

Thus, far from being the great mathematician or scientist, Pythagoras was in fact one of those γόητες (sorcerers) or καθαρταί, one of those "atonement priests" (Sühnpriester) and prophets, wondering from place to place to demonstrate to people his shamanic power, his special power to travel out of the body and into the heavenly realm of the gods and the underworld of the dead, and he had achieved particular success in this in lower Italy.

As for the akusmata, it is otherwise known as symbola (sumbola). It is a set of wisdom sayings and cultic prescriptions. But look at it carefully. First of all, the wisdom sayings don't seem at first sight to communicate much wisdom:

What are the Isle of the Bliss? Sun and Moon. What is the Oracle of Delphi? The Tetraktys... earthquake is the rioting (Zusammenrottung) of the dead; thunder happens to threaten those in Tartaros, who are scared by it; rainbow is the reflection of the sun; sea is the tears of Kronos; the Great and Small Bear are the hands of Rhea, (p. 155)

Secondly, the cultic prescriptions sound at first hearing strange to the extreme:

One should beget children, for one should leave behind to the gods others who will revere them; one should put on the right shoe first; one should not go on main street [Hauptstraßen: lewforoi]; one should not dip one's hands into the cauldron for holy water; one should not utilize public bath; one should be of help not during the unloading, but only during the uploading of cargo; one should not beget children with a woman who wears ornament of gold; one should not speak without light... one should not follow one's own wife, because the man (?) has taken her in the beginning as protection-supplicant at the altar; one should not sacrifice any white cock, because it is a protection-supplicant and is holy to Men (die eigene Frau nicht verfolgen, da der Mann sie als Schutzflehende am Altar in Empfang genommen hat; man soll keinen weissen Hahn opfern, da er ein Schutzflehender und dem Men heilig ist);¹ (p. 156 - 7)

These wisdom sayings and cultic prescriptions had by later, "more enlightened" (aufgeklärten) times become probably more an occasion of laughter than of enlightenment (p. 158), so that among the later generations for whom Pythagoreanism had already become of enormous repute a tendency had taken shape to see them as allegorical, as ainigmata (enigma), as containing an esoteric meaning that was supposedly known to the initiates but hidden for the non-initiates. But Burkert emphasizes that Iamblich's report on the matter leaves no doubt that the prescriptions were in fact meant to be followed literally. If we discover the context wherein the literal meaning of the "wisdom sayings" and the obedience to the literal wording of the prescriptions do not appear senseless, then we would have understood what Pythagoreanism was originally about.

Burkert finds many of the same prescriptions in the mystery religions. The taboo about eating beans was found also in the Eleusian mysteries, and more generally not only among the Greeks but also among the Germans and Indians (p. 164 - 5). It is widely believed that the souls return to earth for reincarnation throguh the intermediary of beans (p. 165). We have heard further more how Pythagoras arrived at the idea of kinship among all living beings. Due to transmigration of the soul he could recognize a deceased friend in a living dog, as the famous anecdote says about him (Kirk and Raven.) All living beings (things be-souled: ta ginomena emyuca) should be regarded as kins (omogenh: of the same lineage). The abstention from eating meat (kinsman) could thus also be expected from the general cultural belief about the mechanism of metempsychosis. But Burkert is careful to point out that contradictory witnesses -- such as that saying that Pythagoras sacrificed an ox on the occasion of the discovery of "his" theorem -- probably imply that only a certain part of flesh is forbidden for consumption, notably the heart (p. 166).

Ultimately, these prescriptions have to do with the purification of the soul. Since the meaning of the purification of the soul lies in keeping it in order or concentrated away from equilibrium with the material environment, these strange percepts, arbitrary though they may appear, must find their meaning therein. The prescriptions came thus from the general cultural belief (Volksglaube) concerning how to keep the soul concentrated. The concentration or purification of the soul at this stage has two purposes, one of the lower rung of popular culture and the other of a more lofty type. The former is the attainment of magical or shamanic abilities. Burkert is perceptive in noticing the general shamanic context within which the Pythagorean akusmata took root. "The seer, the 'wise' is extremely sensitive to small bodily disturbances; only through a painstakingly regulated life-leading can he conserve and increase his beyond-the-ordinary power" (p. 166).² The second is the salvation of the soul -- its blissful existence -- after life. This shows that Pythagoreanism emerges as a specialized version of the cultic practices that had already become widespread and fashionable. Pythagoras and his early disciples had merely adopted practices in their surrounding and interpreted them newly.

"Specialization" means that the cultic practices -- abstention from beans, hearts, certain fishes, and bath and the wearing of white -- that were only observed during the mystery religious fests (the "sacred" days) and were inactive during the ordinary, "profane" days were within the Pythagorean circle transformed into perpetual observances: the Pythagoreans "want to make the whole of their life a service to gods" (p. 175). For this reason they are compared with the sects of Reformation such as the puritans, for whom the special, ascetic measures which ordinary (Catholic) Christians took pain to observe only during the special period (e.g. Lent) became perpetually binding every single day ("intraworldly asceticism", as Weber has noted). Spengler is somewhat right in seeing Pythagoreanism as "contemporary" with Reformation, as Burkert notes.

Das Ernstnehmen der Akusmata bedeutet eine fast bestürzende Einengung der Bewegungsfreiheit des Lebens. Ob ein Pythagoreer aufsteht oder zu Bett geht, Schuhe anzieht oder Nägel schneidet, Feuer schürt, den Topf aufsetzt oder ißt, immer ist ein Gebot zu beachten, gibt es die Bewährung und zugleich die Möglichket der Verfehlung (p. 175).

Taking the Akusmata seriously means an almost dismaying narrowing of the freedom of movement in life. Whether a Pythagorean is getting out of or going to bed, putting on shoes or cutting nails, lighting up fire, setting up cooking pot or eating, there is always a commandment to observe, it is always a trial time or the possibility of failure.

The wisdom sayings such as those concerning earthquakes, rainbows, and thunders were also adopted from the Ionian physicists Anaximander and Anaximenes (p. 170). Much of the akusmata were therefore far older than Pythagoras. The same with number-symbolism.

One is called nouV and ousia, two doxa, three the number of the whole universe -- beginning, middle, and end; four is justice/ fairness [Gerechtigkeit]... which in the form of tetraktys is the source of all of nature; five is gamoV [marriage] as it is the first union of even and odd, male and female; seven is called kairoV... ten is the "perfect" number, which "encompasses the entire nature of number" and determines the division and arrangement of the cosmos; with it the symbolic signification of numbers ends (Burkert, p. 442).

Burkert induces many instances in which the same or similar numerology shows up in other cultures, some possibly due to Pythagorean influences and others clearly of independent developments (p. 444). The number-symbolism was not an impressive invention by Pythagoras or his disciples but was already part of the cultic Volksglaube and merely adopted by him.

The justification for ten as the perfect number -- organized in the shape of tetraktys -- is the most famous instance of Pythagorean numerology at the basic level. At issue is the structure of number itself: the structure according to unit is ten, and according to potential, four. (wste o ariqmoV kata men monada en toiV deka, kata de dunamin en toiV tessarsi. Aetius I, 3, 8; Kirk and Raven, ibid., p. 230-1.) "10 is the nature [phusin] of number. All Greeks and Barbarians alike count up to 10, and having reached 10 revert again to the unit [monada; referring to 1 here]... the power [dunamin] of 10 lies in the number 4, the tetrad. This is the reason. If one starts at the unit [meaning 1 here] and adds the successive numbers up to 4, one will make up the number 10." (Ibid.) Insofar as this is taken to be the fundamental structure of number, it is the arche, the face, so to speak, of divinity, of the Eternal. "And so the Pythagoreans used to invoke the tetrad as their most binding oath (orkou): Nay by him that gave to our generation the tetratys, which contains the fount and root of eternal nature (pagan aenaou fusewV rizwma)." (Ibid.)

The Tetractys of the Decad, as the structure of number, is represented by the famous arrangement of 10 dots or alphas in an equilateral triangle:

   *
  * *
 * * *
* * * *  

That numbers -- sometimes their inner structure, the structure constituted by their mutual relation, such as the tetraktys -- constitute the unvarying structure of reality must be precisely understood. Burkert calls such numerology (not just in Greece but elsewhere) "Gleichnis kosmischer Gesetzlichkeit" (p. 446; "likeness of the cosmos' lawfulness), a good characterization. Consciousness at this stage can only grasp nature in its static aspect. Whereas in modern perspective differential equations express the structure of nature because nature is grasped not just in its stasis, but in its movement, the ancients, in searching for the quantitative structure of nature, can only come up with these individual numbers and static geometric shapes that are reflection or likeness of the order found in nature.

Burkert guesses at the psychological impacts certain numbers may have such that they always have the same mystic function in every culture.

Footnotes:

1.

2. "Der Seher, der 'Weise' ist überaus empfindlich gegen kleine körperliche Störungen; nur durch sorgfältig geregelte Lebensführung kann er seine außergewöhnlichen Kräfte wahren und steigern."