Meiji Modernization

the unity among diff samurai leaders from a few feudal clans in late Tokugawa period that succeeded in bring the restoration in 1868 was broken in 1873
Toza, Hizen had contribution in Meiji Restoration, but no share of political power

1880's, People's Right's Movement
- to pacify the discontent of the movement leader
- to end the movement
- to gain mass support

rise of political Parties

men of all classes developed an interest in politics
newspaper
discontent of samurai
common people were educated & political conscious
influenced by new ideas from the western (eg democracy)
Great demand for participation in government from the samurai & political parties

1870s, Tosa leaders founded political clubs – wanted to control of the emperor's advisers
1878, People's Right's Movt
Constitutional Movement
political clubs set up all over Japan
ask for establishing a national assembly

Conscription Law – people expected that the govt should repay them by giving more political rights

1875, new laws prohibited press criticism of the government
1880, Public Assembly Law limited public gatherings

Preparation for the parliamentary / representative government system

1881, emperor announced that a constitution would be adopted , &

a diet would be opened by 1890

1882, Ito Hirobumi's mission to Europe to study western constitutions
Prussian model on Constitutional Monarchy

Authoritarianism
The power was controlled by emperor

Ito carried out several reforms after his return to strengthen the power of the government

1889 Meiji Constitution

a gift from emperor
an instrument for establishing a strong centralized government
gave people the opportunity to participate in a limited way in the administration of the affairs of the state
centralization of political power in the hand of emperor
decided to establish the supremacy of emperor
enable the state to control the people
freedom was less important than obedience
society is more important than individual

emperor – still a figurehead

the source of all power
supreme, scared & inviolable
above the constitution
uncontrolled by the Diet
commander of Army & Navy
could declare war, make peace & conclude treaties
could appoint & remove all ministers & judges
could veto any law
could dissolve the Diet
could issue imperial decrees or ordinances
controlled foreign policy
financially independent of the diet
real power was exercised by his agents
- restoration leaders – samurai from Choshu & Satsuma, Oligarchs, genro

the Oligarchs monopolized the political power

dominance of militarists in government

a compromise between statism, militarists, Confucianists, liberalism

Enough concessions were given to the liberals to satisfy their min. demands
Confucianists' hope for a more conservative policy
Enough powers had been reserved for the government
Yamagata's demand for an autonomy under the emperor of the armed services

no real sincerity to give true western-style democracy
complete / total democracy might cause troubles

A major innovation in Ja's political history
Forming the basis of modern rule by law
Government should be conducted according to the constitution

1. Cabinet – ministers were responsible to the emperor

2. Diet - House of Peers (nobles)

- House of Representative

members were elected by limited suffrage – 1% of the population

only had budgetary power

if the diet failed to pass a new budget, goverment could carried out the budget of the previous year

too limited in power

little control over the Cabinet & Privy Council

3. Privy council – policy making group centered round the emperor

– policy making & administration were without serious check by the people

4. Genro - extra-constitutional body

- control the govt politically

- dominated the constitution

5. Army & Navy – could direct access to emperor

People was given freedom of speech, press, association, but was subjected to the limits of law
Right to vote for members of the House of Representatives
Had to pay tax & serve in armed force

Special feature of the constitution

Strengthened emperor's power
Power, central position of the emperor were all guaranteed
The constitution provided that the emperor exercised the rights of sovereignty & legislative power
Amendments decided by emperor with the advice of the Privy Council were final
Executive branch was more powerful than the legislative
No concept of collective responsibility
Ministers were appointed by emperor & acted for him
Special rights of the old leaders
Emperor did not take part in the administration
Genro - the only body able to make final decisions

dominated army & navy

- monopolized the office of prime minister & Privy Council

Make the House of Peers the stabilizing force within the legislative branch by giving it powers equal to the House of Representatives
Diet's power was limited
Prime Minister who ignored the wishes of the Diet was able to act independently because of the limited budgetary powers of the Diet
Dominant position of the military
Militarists were given special privileges & advantages
Right to go directly to emperor for approval for their plans

Undemocratic constitution

Rapid growth of opposition parties in the Diet

1^st stage (1890-1894)

Oligarch controlled the cabinet while the parties controlled the House of Representative
Struggle between the cabinet (oligarchy) & the parties
Parties tried to increase power
members of House of Representative abused the power by not passing the annual budget
every attempt to increase the budget was met with opposition from the parties
to bargain with government

government – lack of capital to develop modernization programme if govt adopted the budget of the previous year

representatives of Tosa & Hizen demanded the Cabinet should be responsible to the Diet
budgetary power – only constitutional weapon – window dressing
House of Representative was dissolved 3 times in 4 years
violence, assassination, bribery, threat against Diet members were found in dealing with the members of House of Representative in early 1890s
prefectural governors & local police interfered in election
political instability

solution: a foreign war, stress on the worship of emperor
Sion-Japanese War – a solution to have unity & solidarity
During the war, total support was gained
Quick change from pol unrest to national unity
Japan's 1^st overseas invasion
Victory
Government & opposition leaders of pol parties in House of Representative learned that compromise were needed
More unified, nationalism was spread

2^nd stage (1895-1900)

entente between oligarchs & political parties / oligarch-party entente

party leaders realized that they could not win the struggle
willing to seek compromise with the oligarchs
government began to ally with one party
both sides had their own consideration – refused to surrendered their interests / opposing views
oligarchs: strengthened & consolidated their own political powers

parties gave support to govt policies in return for posts in Cabinet, appointment of party members to office & donations to party
did not bring political stability
corruption
factionalism

destroyed all hopes for an united front against oligarchs

a turning point – Imperial decree 1900
no cabinet could be formed if the Office of Army or Navy did not supply generals or admirals from active list to fill the posts of Ministers of War / Navy
if the military leaders opposed the policies of the Prime Minister or cabinet, Minister of Army or Navy could threaten to resign & cause the downfall of the whole cabinet
domination of the militarist in the government

3^rd stage (1900-13)

oligarch as party leader
the protege of the oligarchs formed their own political parties
political structure – more stabilized
oligarchy was enlarged by the incorporation of the parties
in attempt to win support of the House of Representative for its policies, government appointed more party members to cabinet posts
a violation of the original aim of keeping the cabinet free of interference from the Diet
the influence of Ito & Yamagata continued in Meiji government
but, policies were carried out by their protege Saionyi & Katsura (they became Prime Minister alternatively from 1900-13)

many genro had died / retired

Diet & cabinet co-operated more directly
Political parties played larger roles
Party pressure became important (esp at the late Meiji period)
party govt had become the form of government in Japan – trend built up in 1900s
cabinet & parties failed to deal with the militarists

1890-1894 - conflict

1895-1900 - entente

1900-1913 - party politic

authoritarian, but with democratic
promotion of Shintoism worship of the Emperor

limited democracy was a wise measure
mentality of the people was not ready for democracy
literacy rate was low
democracy had no root in Japanese tradition
few understood the principles of democracy
the need for national unity to defend against western imperialism

political parties of the 1880s had no intention of giving more power & rights to the people
party leaders were either former samurai or merchant-industrialists who were anxious to share power with the government, not to transfer to the people
government determined to hold its political power

after 1912, rise of militarism
military decision affected the national politics