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The Protestant Reformation. Throughout the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church had been very powerful. In fact, the Church was Europe’s wealthiest institution and largest landowner. One reason for this success was a practice known as the sale of indulgences. People would actually donate land and money to the Church in return for being told that after death, they would have to spend less time in Purgatory before going to Heaven. These and other practices led to corruption and abuse, and many people began to criticize the Church. In 1517, a German monk named Martin Luther began what is known as the Protestant Reformation. He called for an end to the sale of indulgences and other abuses. Soon, much of Germany was divided between those who agreed with Luther (who would be called Protestants or Lutherans) and those who remained loyal to the Catholic Church. The Reformation also spread to places like France and the Netherlands. Some people in England also agreed with Luther, but for the most part the English remained Catholic. England’s king at the time was Henry VIII. He initially had no quarrel with the Pope or the Catholic Church. However, in 1527 Henry VIII sought a divorce from his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, because she was not bearing him a male child to inherit the throne. The Pope refused to grant Henry’s divorce, since Catherine was a member of the Spanish royal family and Spain was a big supporter of the Church. Henry eventually decided to break away from the Catholic Church. In 1534 his Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy which made him the head of a new church, the Church of England (also called the Anglican Church). So the Reformation in England was more for political reasons than religious ones. Nevertheless, when England broke away from the Catholic Church, it opened the door for many people to embrace the new, more radical religions that were taking hold in some other parts of Europe. One such religion was Calvinism, which stressed God’s power over man. In England, followers of Calvinism became known as Puritans. They felt that the Anglican Church had not gone far enough in separating itself from Catholic religious practices, and wanted a more sweeping Reformation. Henry VIII finally had a son, but the son died after having been king for only 6 years. After that, Henry’s first daughter, Mary I became Queen. Mary was a Catholic, and during her 5-year reign (1553-1558) she tried to restore the Catholic Church in England. She was particularly brutal to Protestants who refused to switch (see p. 24), and many were executed. Although "Bloody" Mary died in 1558, English Protestants never quite got over this period. Even when she was succeeded by Elizabeth I, many felt they would be better off going somewhere else. It is during Elizabeth’s reign (1558-1603) that things calm down and England begins to prosper. As a Protestant, Elizabeth restores the Church of England, but retains most Catholic rituals and sacraments. This compromise is known as the Elizabethan Settlement. Elizabeth also starts building an English navy, which in 1588 defeats the much larger Spanish Armada in a famous sea battle. By 1600, England will be Spain’s chief rival, and the English were now ready to colonize North America. Elizabeth also renewed her father's attempt to colonize Ireland, whose Catholic population presented a threat to English Protestantism. Indeed, the brutal Irish campaigns of the 1560's presented a model for future English colonization of the Americas. Elizabeth I died in 1603, without a direct heir to the throne. She wanted her cousin, King James VI of Scotland, to succeed her. So in 1603, he became King James I of England as well. It's during James' reign (1603-1625) that the first successful English colonies would be established in North America (Jamestown, 1607; Plymouth, 1620). But the English had been interested in North America since the 1490's; in 1497 King Henry VII sent explorer John Cabot (an Italian) to explore Eastern Canada. But at that time (before Elizabeth), England was still a relatively poor country, and there wasn't enough money to follow up on Cabot's voyage. Finally, in 1585, Elizabeth I authorized Sir Walter Raleigh to establish a settlement off the Carolina coast, which was named Roanoke. However, this attempt failed; the English, disappointed in not finding gold, returned to England after the harsh winter of 1586. A second settlement at Roanoke was established in 1587, but those settlers mysteriously disappeared. But the English had not lost interest in America. For one thing, English Protestants saw colonization of the New World as a necessary step to curb the power of Catholic Spain. Moreover, by the time James I came to the throne (1603), there were enough willing investors in joint stock companies to underwrite risky voyages and corporate colonies. Many of these investors were excited by the tales of fantastic mineral and natural wealth told by promoters such as Richard Hakluyt. When he became King, James I continued Elizabeth's attempts to establish an English presence in the New World. The first successful English settlement would be in Virginia (named after Elizabeth, the "virgin queen"), at Jamestown in 1607. Jamestown was chartered by a joint stock company, the London Company, which was later renamed the Virginia Company. Its sole purpose was to return a profit to investors. In 1607, three ships carrying 104 men (no women) arrived at the Chesapeake Bay and sailed 50 miles up the James River (named after King James). However, as we will see next time, Jamestown's early years were disastrous. For one thing, the men immediately began searching for gold, instead of the harder work of planting crops. Second, the swampy area around the settlement bred malaria, which would continue to take a toll on the Chesapeake population throughout the 17th century. Discipline was also a major problem, especially in the absence of family structure. Finally, and we will talk more about this next time as well, the settlers were engaged in intermittent warfare with the Powhatan Indians (1607-14). Next time: More on Jamestown; religious disagreement causes Puritan Separatists to establish a colony at Plymouth.
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