Notes from 6/12/01

American History I
Notes from 6/12

With the Revolutionary War starting in earnest, the British had several advantages. First, they had the best trained army in the world. Second, Britain’s population was still about 4 times greater than the colonies, and third, Britain had the most powerful navy on earth. However, the colonists had some things going for them too. Obviously, the war was to be fought on their soil, and using guerilla-type tactics that were not particularly well-suited for the British style of fighting. More importantly, the colonists felt they were fighting for a principle, while the British and their Hessian (German) mercenaries were fighting largely as professional soldiers.

The first years did not go at all well for the Americans. The Continental Congress had to beg each of the state legislatures for money to finance the war, and was seldom successful at getting the states to contribute their fair share. As a result, Washington’s troops often went without pay, basic supplies, munitions and food. The initial British strategy was to take over New York (which had a large Loyalist population), thereby dividing rebellious New England from the southern colonies. They took control of New York with ease, pushing Washington’s army into New Jersey in August, 1776. The Americans then retreated across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, where they planned to spend the winter. Thomas Paine would write of this first winter:

"These are the times that try men’s souls…The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country, but he that stands now deserves love and thanks."

Some soldiers did in fact desert, but Washington’s army remained intact. Wanting to deal at least one blow to the British before the onset of winter, Washington’s troops quietly crossed the Delaware River again on Christmas night, 1776, and surprise attacked sleeping Hessians at Trenton, New Jersey.

These and subsequent victories in New Jersey were short-lived. After spending the winter in Princeton, New Jersey, the continental armies met several major defeats during the spring and summer of 1777. Washington’s second winter, at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania was disastrous. However, one important battle, in Saratoga, New York, may have been the war’s turning point. The victory in October, 1777 signaled to France, Britain’s chief rival, that the Americans may have a chance at winning the war. The French therefore decided to help the Americans in 1778.

With French aid, the British are put on the defensive. Now they have to fight not only in North America, but in the Caribbean and Europe as well. Although the war drags on through 1779 and 1780, the British are forced to consolidate their troops in the south, where they still feel they have a better chance. However, by October, 1781, a large contingent of the British troops are forced to surrender at Yorktown (Virginia) and, with the exception of a few skirmishes, the fighting is over. The British and Americans begin peace negotiations, which ultimately leads to the Treaty of Paris (1783), recognizing American independence.

With the Revolutionary War over, American attention now turned to other matters. In 1777, the Continental Congress had adopted the Articles of Confederation. Although the Articles were not formally ratified by the states until 1781, they had been more or less the unofficial constitution of the country throughout the war years.

There were several problems with the Articles of Confederation. They created a loose "league of friendship" among the states, rather than a strong central government. Under the Articles, the Congress did not have the power to levy direct taxes, for example. Instead, the Congress had to ask each state for funds. Many times the states would refuse, or send less money than was requested. This is a reason why soldiers in the Continental Army often went unpaid, poorly clothed, or malnourished. Additionally, the Articles did not give Congress enough power to regulate relations among the states. As a result, border disputes and trade wars often developed. Because the states were so independent from one another, each printed its own paper money, which made it very difficult to develop a national economy. Finally, the Articles of Confederation did not provide for a President or Chief Executive, or for federal courts.

While the war was on, many of the rivalries between the states were kept in check. However with the war over, national unity became a serious concern. Without a common enemy, the states seemed to have more differences than similarities. Without a strong central government, these differences threatened to destroy the new republic.

Despite these concerns, there were some successes under the Articles of Confederation. The terms of the Treaty of Paris (1783) were more generous than most people had expected. Not only did Britain recognize American independence, they also ceded (gave up) the vast territory between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River.

The Land Ordinance of 1785 contained provisions for the creation of townships in the Northwest Territory (the area north of the Ohio River), and even provided for public support of education there. The Northwest Ordinance (1787) laid out how states would eventually be created out of this territory, guaranteed basic rights, and forbade slavery. Between 1782 and 1786, all of the individual states that made claims to parts of the Northwest Territory had ceded their lands to the United States.

In 1786, Shays’ Rebellion in western Massachusetts really illustrated the main problem with the Articles of Confederation. Like many small farmers after the Revolution, Daniel Shays was heavily in debt, and was about to lose his farm to creditors. He and others felt that the laws of the state were too "pro-creditor" and he led a series of attacks on local courthouses to prevent foreclosures from taking place. As the rebellion grew, it became clear that neither the Congress or the state of Massachusetts had enough money to raise a militia in order to stop it. Instead, a privately paid force had to be assembled. Shays and his followers were ultimately defeated, but the fact that the central government was too weak to do anything about the rebellion indicated to many people that there was a need to change things.

In September, 1786, a group of leaders assembled in Annapolis (Maryland) to address the problem. However, only five states were represented at this meeting, so the group had to adjourn. They did issue a call for a meeting the following spring in Philadelphia, for the same purpose. That meeting would be known as the Constitutional Convention.