American History I
Notes from 9/5/00
"New World Encounters" We first talked about the Americas before the arrival of Europeans. According to most archeologists, the first migrants came to North America about 30,000 years ago. These were small, nomadic tribes who crossed the "land bridge" between Asia and America during a period in our earth’s history when large glaciers covered much of that area. These Asiatic peoples slowly trickled into North America, during a period lasting several thousand years. Because this migration was a slow trickle instead of a mass exodus, the result was a large number of Native American tribes scattered throughout North and South America, each one having its own language, customs and traditions.
About 4,000 years ago, many Native American civilizations began to undergo an "agricultural revolution." During this time, they developed more sophisticated methods of cultivating crops. As they shifted from hunting/gathering to farming, they could establish more permanent communities and develop more complex cultures. The Aztecs, Incas and Mayans are good examples of this.
In the northeast, Native Americans did not generally practice as intensive an agriculture. The so-called Eastern Woodland Cultures relied on a mix of farming, hunting and gathering to survive. Tribes like the Massachusetts, Mahican, Powhatan and Tuscarora tended to form small villages during the summer months but disband for winter.
The most important point to remember from our discussion on Native Americans prior to Columbus’ voyage is that they were extremely diverse. With 300 – 350 different languages, distinct traditions and cultures, and scattered throughout North and South America, there is very little that all of these tribes shared in common. European settlers to the New World during the 16th and 17th centuries will often fail to recognize these differences.
Africa I briefly discussed West Africa, and the development during the 15th century of the West African slave trade. We discussed how the Portuguese established trading posts along the West African coast, and how, even prior to the European exploration of the New World, African slaves were being exported to Europe. I made a number of important points, which we will return to later when we discuss slavery and the slave trade more fully. First, I pointed out that slavery had existed in western civilization from time immemorial, and in ancient societies had been the bedrock of the economy. What was new about slavery after the 15th century was the nearly exclusive reliance on sub-Saharan Africa as a source of slaves, and the gradual justification of African slavery on racial grounds. Second, I discussed the role of local kings and chiefs in facilitating this African slave trade; the Portuguese relied on local authorities to conduct the raids, often into the interior of Africa, from which able-bodied captives would be sold into slavery. I talked about the early appearance of African slaves in South America and the Caribbean, where Spanish and Portuguese conquerors needed cheap source of labor to replace or supplement vanquished Native American populations. Next time we will discuss the appearance of slaves in the English colonies, which would not occur until sometime later (at Jamestown in 1619).
I next gave a brief overview of European history from ancient Greece and Rome, through the Middle Ages, and finally to the Renaissance. The main point was that after the decline of the Roman Empire (during the 300’s and 400’s A.D.), Europe went into a long period of stagnation. This period was characterized by the development of an economic system known as feudalism, an extremely powerful Catholic Church, and the absence of strong secular (non-religious) political authority. Most Europeans were poor peasant farmers; only a very small number were nobles or members of the clergy. This period is also known as the Medieval Period. In the past, scholars referred to these years as the Dark Ages.
Gradually, the Middle Ages end. First in Italy during the 1400’s, there is a renewed interest in learning, art, and business. This period, which comes later in France, then in the rest of western Europe, is known as the Renaissance. It is during the Renaissance that a stronger and more sophisticated middle class begins to emerge. These people begin to demand more luxury goods from Asia, particularly spices and silks.
For centuries, the way goods got from Asia to Europe was over land. This was known as the "Silk Road."
But this took a long time, and the journey was very dangerous for traders. For this reason, many people began wondering whether they could reach China and India by sea instead, by sailing westward across the Atlantic Ocean. A number of innovations in sailing would make longer sea voyages possible. One of these men was Christopher Columbus. In 1492 he set sail from Spain, after receiving backing from the Spanish monarchs, to find the much sought after water route.
Of course, Columbus greatly underestimated the westward distance to Asia, and did not know that North and South America (and the Pacific Ocean) stood between the Atlantic and China. However, his "discovery" of the New World in 1492 would turn out to be an even more important development than finding a route to Asia. It led to a series of explorations, and, ultimately to the European settlement of the New World.
The early period of European exploration was dominated by the Spanish and Portuguese. These two countries viewed the New World as a source of mineral wealth and other riches, and sought to divide the North and South America between themselves. However, neither country would be able to stop subsequent exploration and settlement by the French, Dutch and English.
The Protestant Reformation. Throughout the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church had been very powerful. In fact, the Church was Europe’s wealthiest institution and largest landowner. One reason for this success was a practice known as the sale of indulgences. People would actually donate land and money to the Church in return for being told that after death, they would have to spend less time in Purgatory before going to Heaven. These and other practices led to corruption and abuse, and many people began to criticize the Church.
In 1517, a German monk named Martin Luther began what is known as the Protestant Reformation. He called for an end to the sale of indulgences and other abuses. Soon, much of Germany was divided between those who agreed with Luther (who would be called Protestants or Lutherans) and those who remained loyal to the Catholic Church. The Reformation also spread to places like France and the Netherlands.
Some people in England also agreed with Luther, but for the most part the English remained Catholic. England’s king at the time was Henry VIII. He initially had no quarrel with the Pope or the Catholic Church. However, in 1527 Henry VIII sought a divorce from his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, because she was not bearing him a male child to inherit the throne. The Pope refused to grant Henry’s divorce, since Catherine was a member of the Spanish royal family and Spain was a big supporter of the Church. Henry eventually decided to break away from the Catholic Church. In 1534 his Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy which made him the head of a new church, the Church of England (also called the Anglican Church).
So the Reformation in England was more for political reasons than religious ones. Nevertheless, when England broke away from the Catholic Church, it opened the door for many people to embrace the new, more radical religions that were taking hold in some other parts of Europe. One such religion was Calvinism, which stressed God’s power over man. In England, followers of Calvinism became known as Puritans. They felt that the Anglican Church had not gone far enough in separating itself from Catholic religious practices, and wanted a more sweeping Reformation.
Henry VIII finally had a son, but the son died after having been king for only 6 years. After that, Henry’s first daughter, Mary I became Queen. Mary was a Catholic, and during her 5-year reign (1553-1558) she tried to restore the Catholic Church in England. She was particularly brutal to Protestants who refused to switch (see p. 24), and many were executed. Although "Bloody" Mary died in 1558, English Protestants never quite got over this period. Even when she was succeeded by Elizabeth I, many felt they would be better off going somewhere else.
It is during Elizabeth’s reign (1558-1603) that things calm down and England begins to prosper. As a Protestant, Elizabeth restores the Church of England, but retains most Catholic rituals and sacraments. Elizabeth also starts building an English navy, which in 1588 defeats the much larger Spanish Armada in a famous sea battle. By 1600, England will be Spain’s chief rival, and the English were now ready to colonize North America.