Western Civilization I
Notes from 2/14/01

Recap: The "Golden Age of Athens"

By 479 B.C., the Persians had been successfully repelled, and Athens emerged as the most powerful polis, or city-state.    The 5th century B.C. is often referred to as the "Golden Age of Athens" or the "Age of Pericles," after the Athenian general and statesman who oversaw the development of the city-state into a regional power.

Although Athens continued to refine and improve its own democratic institutions during this Golden Age, it also became increasingly dictatorial towards its neighboring city-states.  Sparta and other poleis were concerned about the growth of Athenian power, which they viewed as a threat to their own autonomy.  The Greek city-states soon became divided into two hostile camps, one led by the Athenians, the other by Sparta.

The Peloponnesian Wars

Athens and Sparta fought two wars, named after the area of Greece (the Peloponnesus) where Sparta was located.  The first Peloponnesian War (460-445 B.C.) led to a fragile peace between the two powers.  The second Peloponnesian War (432-404 B.C.) ended with Athens' defeat, and a period of Spartan hegemony.

However, the important effect of the long period of fighting among the city-states was to weaken the Greek poleis and pave the way for invasion by other powers.

The Macedonian Takeover

Macedon was a kingdom to the north of the Greek city-states.  Although the Macedonians spoke a dialect of Greek, they were considered "backwards" by other Greeks and had not adopted Athenian democracy or other cultural values of the Greece.   In 338 B.C., the Macedonians, under King Philip, launched a successful invasion of the Greek city-states, effectively ending the period of the self-governing polis and making the poleis part of a larger Hellenistic empire.   In 336, B.C., Philip was succeeded by his son, Alexander.

Alexander (called "Alexander the Great") embarked on an ambitious program of territorial expansion, extending Macedonian control as far east as the Indus River (India). 

Alexander's conquests had the effect of introducing Hellenistic culture to new areas.   He created cities and trade routes that would survive throughout the Middle Ages, Renaissance and into the modern era.  However, after Alexander's death in 323 B.C., the vast Macedonian Empire could not be held together.

I.  The Etruscans and Greeks

Two civilizations preceded the Romans on the Italian Peninsula (in the area called "Latium"): (1) the Etruscans and (2) the Greeks.  The Etruscans appeared in Italy around 800 B.C., and dominated the area for about 300 years (to 500 B.C.).   They had their own form of writing (which we have yet to decipher), a polytheistic religion (main deities were Minerva, Juno and Jupiter), and extensive trading relationships with the Phoenicians and the Greeks.  We're not sure exactly where the Etruscans came from, although their tomb architecture bears many resemblances to comparable structures in Asia minor.

The Greeks established about 50 poleis in southern Italy and on the island of Sicily, beginning around 750 B.C.  Greek culture greatly influenced the Etruscans, and later the Romans.   Although the Romans will make many notable contributions to western culture, certainly in areas such as law and engineering, in other aspects of culture (such as philosophy, literature and visual arts) Roman culture is nearly entirely derivative.

II.  The Roman Republic

We don't know that much about the actual origins of the Romans or the founding of the city of Rome (the actual name "Rome" has Etruscan origins).  Evidence of a settlement near the present city dates back to 1400 B.C., when nomadic warlike peoples sharing a set of related languages (called Italic) first infiltrated Italy from across the Adriatic Sea.  We do know that after 800 B.C., when the Etruscans arrived, these people were introduced to a more agricultural, settled lifestyle, but also that they were exploited by the Etruscans, who constituted the local aristocracy.

Around 500 B.C., the Romans got rid of their last Etruscan king, and established themselves as a Republic.  The early Republic was a complicated system of checks and balances, meant to prevent the development of a hereditary monarchy.  The consuls were the chief executives, judges and army commanders of the Republic.  At any given time, there were typically two consuls, each one of whom was elected for a one-year term.  Although the consuls retained many of the trappings or royalty, their powers were limited by law and custom.

The Roman Senate (from which the consuls were initially chosen) was center of power in the early Republic.  It controlled the state's finances and foreign policy.  Although it technically served an advisory function, it wielded tremendous influence over all decisions.

There were also three Assemblies.  The most powerful of the Assemblies during the early Republic was the Assembly of the Centuries, which consisted of the Roman Army, divided into groups of 100 (hence the name "Centuries").  The Assembly of Tribes was supposed to represent commoners, or "Plebeians."  A third Assembly, called the Assembly of Curiae gradually lost significance.

Finally, from time to time, the consuls, with the advice of the Senate, could appoint a man to serve as "Dictator."  Dictators were supposed to serve for six-month terms, usually during periods of crisis.

III.  Factors Contributing to the Success and Stability of the Republic

The Roman system of republican government was extremely complicated, made more so by the fact that the Romans did not have a single written constitution, but instead relied on a set of carefully observed procedures and customs.  How then, was it successful?

1.  Roman conservatism and respect for the "rule of law."  Roman political culture was extremely conservative.  Whereas the ancient Greeks, particularly the Athenian Sophists, loved to question fundamental assumptions and institutions, Romans emphasized respect for tradition and authority. 

2.  The Roman Family.  The family was the foundation of a strong Roman Republic.  The patriarch ("paterfamilias") exercised absolute control over his family; even if his sons married and had their own households, they continued to answer to him as long as he lived.  Such a strong emphasis on the family structure and the authority of the patriarch no doubt contributed to Roman stability, since extended families formed the basis of political participation and division within the Republic.  The importance of the family was increased by the development of clientage, a system recognized by Roman law and tradition whereby wealthier, more powerful members of the society would "look out for" less powerful families.  The patron protected his clients and gave them economic assistance (often, but not always, in the form of land grants).  In return, the client supported the patron's political agenda.  The patron-client relationship (which was hereditary) made families even more central to Roman political life, since it extended the patriarch's influence and control beyond his blood relatives.

3.  Compromises between Patricians and Plebeians.  Free Roman society initially sharply divided between two classes: Patricians and Plebeians.   Class status was based on birth, not wealth.  The Patricians had a number of legal and political privileges.  For example, only a Patrician could serve as consul, or in the Senate.  During the period from 497 - 287 B.C. (known as the "Struggle of the Orders"), several important concessions were made to the Plebeians, which helped preserve stability and maintain cohesion in Roman society.  In 494, for example, the office of "Tribune" was created.  The Tribunes (originally there were two) were elected to represent Plebeian interests.   They could not be harmed or interfered with in any way, and could effectively veto the decisions of consuls and magistrates.

In 445 B.C., Plebeians were given the right to intermarry with Patricians; and in 367, one consulate was set aside for a Plebeian.  Finally in 287, the Assembly of Tribes (the Plebeians' Assembly) was given greater powers, and its decisions were made binding on the entire Republic.

These compromises were important in helping Rome develop as a Republic.  However, as we will see, social and economic tensions among the Patricians and Plebeians will ultimately contribute to the demise of republican institutions and the re-emergence of a monarchy.

IV.  Mediterranean Conquest (264-133 B.C.)

By 265, Rome controlled nearly the entire Italian Peninsula, having defeated the Etruscans and other peoples who had established communities in the area. 

Between 264 and 133 B.C., the Republic embarked on a program of extending its control over the entire Mediterranean region.  This was accomplished in part by Rome's defeat of the powerful city-state of Carthage (in North Africa) during the three Punic Wars (264-146 B.C.).  By 133, Roman control had extended to Spain, Greece, and the western portion of Turkey (Asia Minor).

However, territorial expansion put greater demands on the Republic.  For one thing, years of fighting had brought many small farmers to the point of financial ruin, while wealthier citizens had become enriched by the spoils of war.  A huge increase in the slave population brought about by conquest had depressed the wages paid to free workers, creating additional tensions.  As economic conditions worsened, it became more difficult to recruit citizens to serve in the army, since few could afford to buy their own armor.

V.  The Gracchi

In 133 B.C., a man named Tiberius Gracchus became a Tribune.  He attempted to solve some of the social and economic problems caused by territorial conquest through a series of land reforms.  Basically, the idea was to limit Patrician holdings and increase the amount of public lands available to Plebeians.   Of course, Tiberius Gracchus' initiative was opposed by the wealthy Patricians in the Roman Senate, who plotted his murder late in 133.

The murder of Tiberius Gracchus (at the hands of a mob spurred on by Senators) set a dangerous precedent, because it violated the centuries-old legal tradition of protecting the Tribune from personal harm, thus undermining a fundamental republican principle.

Tiberius' younger brother, Gaius Gracchus, was elected a Tribune in 123 B.C.  Like his brother, he took a more strident pro-Plebeian stance, mainly trying to limit the powers of the Senate (particularly with regard to the appointment of governors for the Roman provinces and the investigation of tax abuses).  Gaius had one of his own slaves kill him when the Senate and consuls sent a mob after him.

The Gracchi attempt to create a more activist Assembly of Tribes, and their violent ends, led to a period of political instability in Rome and an abandonment of republican principles, such as respect for the rule of law.  A number of warlords and dictators came to power after 122, each one intent on using the armies to maintain control.

VI.  Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar (b. 100 B.C.) was a wealthy Patrician who had been Roman governor of Spain.  He returned to Rome in 60 B.C., and formed a coalition with two former consuls, Pompey and Crassus.  This coalition is referred to as the First Triumvirate.  With his allies behind him, Caesar was elected a consul in 59 B.C.  He then turned his attention to continuing Roman territorial expansion, this time through the conquest of Gaul (France).

Between 58 and 50 B.C., Caesar waged war against the Gauls, and ultimately subdued the region (the "Gallic Wars").  Although the acquisition of Gaul greatly enriched the Republic, it threatened many Senators (as well as Caesar's former ally, Pompey), who felt that he was becoming far too powerful.

Caesar was ordered to lay down his arms and return to Rome.  Instead, he decided to invade Italy, with his loyal legions behind him, crossing the Rubicon River in 49 B.C. (which is why "crossing the Rubicon" means making a fateful decision from which there is no turning back).  Caesar easily took Rome, and chased his remaining enemies through Greece and to Egypt.

In Egypt, Caesar had a relationship with Cleopatra VII, who was engaged in a bitter civil war with her brother, Ptolemy XIII.  This relationship cemented Roman control over Egypt, and its vast riches.  Caesar returned to Italy in 46 B.C., assuming the positions of both dictator and consul.  Although he continued to keep up the appearance of a Roman Republic, in fact he wielded absolute power.

Caesar was assassinated on March 15, 44 B.C. (the "Ides of March"), by Senators who feared his growing power.

VII.  Mark Antony and Octavius

After Caesar's death, a power struggle between Mark Antony (a consul and military commander) and Gaius Octavius (Caesar's grand nephew and adopted son) developed.  At first, the two tried to work together, forming a "Second Triumvirate" with another military commander, Marcus Lepidus.  However, by 32 B.C., their alliance had broken down, since both men craved absolute power.

Mark Antony's forces were defeated the following year.  He fled to Egypt, where he and Cleopatra (who had become his lover) committed suicide.

Octavian returned to Rome in 29 B.C., having re-asserted Roman control over Egypt.   Although he never actually took the title of "emperor," by 27 B.C., all pretense of a true Roman Republic had been abandoned.  Between 27 B.C. and 14 A.D., Octavian (now called "Augustus") consolidated his power and laid the foundation for a Roman Empire.  More on the Empire, and the problems associated with the emperors, next time.