| AP American History Review: Presidential Administrations and Events to know!
Era: The Young Republic, or the Early National Period: 1. George Washington, 1789-1797 (two terms) VP - John Adams; Secy of State - Thomas Jefferson; Secy of Treasury - Alexander Hamilton • Judiciary Act, 1789 –creates Federal court system • French Revolution - Citizen Genét, 1793 tries to raise American forces to fight against England; Washington has him removed as emissary • Proclamation of Neutrality (French Revolution 1789-1799) • Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794)—defeat of Miami Confederacy in NW territory, Treaty of Greenville (1795)--$20,000 for Indian lands • Invention of the cotton gin in 1793 will lead to increased profitability for cotton in the south • Jay Treaty with England, 1795—Opens British territories to United States trade, England agrees to vacate forts in NW territory and to compensate Americans for shipping losses during British-French war, America agrees to guarantee pre-Rev. war debts to British merchants, no agreement on Impressment or future shipping losses • Pinckney Treaty with Spain, 1795—United States gets navigation rights on Mississippi River and right of deposit in Port of New Orleans. Also settled some territorial disputes. • Hamilton’s Financial Plan/Report on the Public Credit (Federalist Secretary of Treasury) • Assumption of state debts left over from Revolutionary War (Federal Government will pay)—creates the National Debt; gives the wealthy (creditor) class a reason to want to see the government succeed • First Bank of United States, 1791-1811—part government owned, part private owned • Tariff of 1789 (8%) • Whiskey Rebellion, 1799 (Farmers in Pa. respond to federal excise tax on Whiskey; rebellion crushed) • Birth of the first 2 party system in America—Federalists v. Democratic Republicans • Farewell Address, 1796 –Beware of political parties and entangling alliances • Two term tradition, not broken until FDR 2. John Adams, 1797-1801, Federalist (one term) VP - Thomas Jefferson • XYZ Affair, 1797—attempt by French diplomat to get bribe money from United States • Undeclared Naval War with France 1798-1800 • Logan Act 1798—private citizens cannot negotiate for United States without authorization • Establishment of the Department of the Navy 1798 • Convention of 1800 breaks alliance with France and ends hostilities of “Quasi-War” • Alien Act (allows president to deport non-citizens), Sedition Act (criminalizes criticism of government), 1798 • Naturalization Act—lengthens period of time required for citizenship • Kentucky (Jefferson) and Virginia (Madison) Resolutions, 1798 (state compact theory!)—written in response to Alien and Sedition Acts; claim right of state to nullify (neither state did nullify) • Midnight Judges," 1801 (Judiciary Act of 1801)—Federalist Adams “packs” judiciary with Federalist judges before leaving office 3. Thomas Jefferson, 1801-1809, Democratic-Republican (two terms) VP - Aaron Burr; Secretary of State - James Madison • Reduced the ceremonial role of President; worked closely w/ D-R Congress • Repealed excise tax, pardoned those jailed for sedition, passed new naturalization act • Kept National Bank and Tariff (inconsistent with D-R philosophy of limited National powers) • Marbury v. Madison, 1803 –establishes judicial review • Louisiana Purchase, 1803 –From France (after the Haitian revolt) • Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804-1805 • 12th Amendment, 1804 –separate ballots for president and vice president • Chesapeake Incident 1807 (3 Americans killed by British attack on American ship) • Embargo Act, 1807 –cut off United States exports; attempt to stay out of British-French war • Non-Intercourse Act, 1809 –cuts off trade only with Britain and France • Undeclared Naval war in Tripoli—against Pirates of the Mediterranean 4. James Madison, 1809-1817, Democratic-Republican (2 terms) VP - George Clinton; Secretary of State - James Monroe • Macon’s Bill No. 2, 1810 –U.S. will resume trade w/ Britain and/or France if they pledge to support neutral rights; France will claim they accept—contributes to U.S. war against England • French Berlin and Milan Decrees –French restrictions on United States trade with England • British Orders in Council—English restrictions on United States trade with France • "War Hawks," 1811-1812 –young Congressmen (Clay, Calhoun) pushing for war against England so United States can take Canada and possibly Florida • Wm. Henry Harrison defeats Shawnees in Indiana (Battle of Tippecanoe) • War of 1812—2nd War of Independence; fought over United States neutral shipping rights • Hartford Convention, 1814 (sectionalist demands from the Federalists in New England who were hurt by losing their trade with England during the war)— propose limiting president to 1 term; requiring 2/3 vote to declare war or admit new states or enact an embargo • First “Protective” Tariff, 1816 • Treaty of Ghent—ends War of 1812 at status quo ante-bellum • Recharter of the BUS (inconsistent with D-R philosophy) • Madison vetoes Internal Improvements Bill (1817)—believes they should be a local, not national responsibility (consistent w/ D-R philosophy_ Era of Good Feelings and the Rebirth of a Two Party System: 5. James Monroe, 1817-1825, Democratic-Republican VP – Tompkins; Secretary of State - John Quincy Adams • Marshall Court Decisions—Strengthen the National government and protect contracts (which will promote business), Marshall’s decisions are a long term impact of Federalist party, despite its demise: McCulloch v. Maryland, 1819; Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 1819; Gibbons v. Ogden, 1824; Fletcher v. Peck • General Andrew Jackson’s invasion and occupation of Spanish Florida 1818 (Calhoun wants Jackson reprimanded, JQ Adams says no it’s cool…Jackson will later detest Calhoun when he finds out) • Acquisition of Florida from Spain, 1819; Transcontinental or Adam-Onis Treaty 1819 • Tallmadge Amendment 1818, defeated in the Senate—would have gradually abolished slavery in Missouri territory • Missouri Compromise, 1820—Missouri slave/Maine free; no slavery (within Louisiana Territory) above 36 30’ (“forever”)—Henry Clay of Kentucky brokers the compromise; forever lasts until K-N Act 1854 • Monroe Doctrine, 1823—W. Hemisphere “closed” to further European colonization, United States will view violations as an act of war, United States will stay out of European affairs (largely symbolic gesture, made unilaterally although Britain offered to make it a Joint statement. Written by JQ Adams) • Tariff, 1824 • Favorite Sons Election [Jackson, J. Q. Adams, Crawford, Clay], 1824—Jackson defeated, although he won more popular votes and more electoral votes than JW Adams (a corrupt bargain?) 6. John Quincy Adams, 1825-1829, D-R, then National Republican (one term) VP - John C. Calhoun; Secy of State- Henry Clay (that was the deal, right?) • JQA favored a nationalistic agenda during a time of increasing sectionalism • The nation’s 1st “minority” president • Henry Clay introduces his “American System;” based on Hamilton’s Financial Plan. Clay argues in favor of a protective tariff, the national bank, and federal funding of internal improvements (infrastructure—roads to improve trade). This will become the platform of the nationalistic Whig Party; it will be opposed by the Jacksonian Democrats. • Growth of popular democracy (states remove property requirements; popular vote for electors); growth in importance of party organization to get out the vote; politicians must appeal to “common man” • "Corrupt Bargain" charge exploited by Jackson throughout JQA’s term • Erie Canal, 1825 (built/dug at New York State expense)—connects Eastern NY with the West (Albany to Buffalo)—the Erie Canal was a miracle in engineering for its time and canal building was the rage in the 1820s—the transportation developments to know: roads/turnpikes (first), then canals/steamboats, then railroads (which don’t really take off on a big scale until the 1850s—1st transcontinental is 1869) • Tariff of Abominations 1828 prompts Calhoun's Exposition and Protest, which will cause the nullification controversy under Jackson (Calhoun uses the state compact theory to argue that SC can nullify the tariff—based on Va. and Ky. Resolutions of 1798) 7. Andrew Jackson, 1829-1837, Democrat; VP - John C. Calhoun and Martin Van Buren • Jacksonian Democracy—faith in the common man, against privilege and elitism • Jackson is sometimes a nationalist (supporter of national power) and sometimes a sectionalist (supporter of states’ rights and limited national power) • Spoils system/rotation in office (growth of party patronage increases power of political parties) • American romanticism flowers (Hudson River School paintings, American novels & poetry focus on American themes of freedom, individualism, natural environment) • Frenchman Alexis de Tocqueville visits the U.S. and comments favorably on American society’s lack of an aristocracy, American individualism, & the relative lack of obvious class distinctions. • Transcendentalism—intellectual movement focusing on individualism (Emerson, Thoreau) • Utopian Communities—Brook Farm, New Harmony, Oneida; communal living; inspired by transcendental thought & by disillusionment with changes brought by market economy • Universal white manhood suffrage—property requirements are gradually removed by states • The 2nd Great Awakening (salvation through good works)—camp meetings bring religion to the people, women are active in religious revivals • Age of Reform (temperance, women’s rights, prison reform) • America in Age of Jackson is undergoing economic transformation—market economy; helps increase sectional differences between north, south and west; also contributes to the belief that men and women belong in separate spheres (“cult of domesticity” for middle class white women) • Webster-Hayne Debate (growth of sectionalism v. nationalism) • Jefferson Day Dinner toasts (Calhoun v. Jackson) • Tariffs of 1832 (still not low enough for SC) and 1833 (Clay’s compromise tariff) • Nullification Crisis (1828-1833)—Jackson threatens to invade South Carolina (Force Act) when SC nullifies the tariff; Clay brokers a compromise tariff; SC nullifies the Force Bill (nullification issue never resolved) • Veto of internal improvements (Maysville Road)—Jackson believes roads should be built at local, not national, expense • Veto Bank of the United States Recharter Bill (not due to expire in 1836; but bill put forth by Clay to try to ruin Jackson’s chance of re-election)—veto message appeals directly to the people; argues that BUS favors the rich and hurts the common man & states • After vetoing the BUS and winning re-election, Jackson decides to “kill” the BUS by withdrawing funds and depositing them in state (“pet”) banks • Distribution Act 1836—Jackson orders distribution of budget surplus to state governments (federal deposits, now in private state banks, have to be withdrawn and distributed to state governments—causes a depletion of specie) • Specie Circular—because of a land speculation boom (fueled by easy credit from state banks), Jackson orders that only hard money can be used to buy western lands from gov’t (causes a run on state banks to redeem paper notes) • Wildcat banks (pet banks)—irresponsible state banks that printed worthless paper notes • Formation of the Whig Party, 1832—coalition of nationalists, former Federalists, Jackson haters • Indian Removal Act 1830—tribes remaining East of Mississippi River will be gradually relocated west • State of the Union Address—new Indian policy is humane; allows them to keep their culture (but not their land) instead of forced assimilation • Worcester v. Georgia (Chief Justice Marshall sides with Cherokees)—state of Georgia cannot take Cherokee lands; it has no jurisdiction over Cherokee Nation (Jackson won’t enforce) • 1836—Texicans (Americans living in Texas) win their independence from Mexico • Gag Rule passed 1836 preventing anti-slavery petitions from being debated (JQ Adams worked relentlessly to have it repealed; it was repealed in 1844) 8. Martin Van Buren, 1837-1841 Democrat; VP - Richard M. Johnson • Panic of 1837 –caused by over speculation on western lands/overexpansion of credit • Oversaw “Trail of Tears” • Amistad Case (Africans mutiny on a Spanish slave ship)—Supreme Court rules that Amistad Africans have to be returned to Africa as they were illegally kidnapped by Spain (Slave trade illegal); Spain claimed they were not Africans but Cuban-born slaves being moved to a new Spanish territory (it was just weird that they spoke no Spanish, only African languages) ________________________________________ Ante-Bellum Period, 1840-1860: Manifest Destiny and buildup to Civil War 9. William Henry Harrison, 1841, Whig; VP - John Tyler; Secretary of State - Daniel Webster 10. John Tyler, 1841-1845, Democrat ran as VP on Whig ticket; Secretary of State - Daniel Webster • “His Accidency” (first VP to ascend to presidency upon the death of a president) • Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 1842—negotiates border of Maine • Vetoes Clay's bill for 3rd Bank of the United States • Canadian Border set at 49th parallel—negotiated with England • Annexation of Texas as a slave state through joint Congressional resolution (Senate rejected Tyler’s Treaty of Annexation in 1844) at very end of Tyler’s term (after pro-annexation Polk elected) 11. James K. Polk, 1845-1849, Democrat; VP - Dallas • The Manifest Destiny President • Oregon boundary settled, 1846 (campaign slogan: 54? 40’ or fight!) • Mexican War, 1846-1848—fought over southern border of Texas, but Polk wanted California (which Mexico refused to sell ‘cause they were too ticked off) • “American Blood on American Soil”—Polk tells Congress to declare war b/c American forces were attacked by Mexico • Spot Resolutions (Whig Lincoln)—Where, exactly, was that American blood shed? • Thoreau’s essay on Civil Disobedience—argued that the war was immoral; no one should support immoral laws; don’t pay your taxes if you don’t support the government (Thoreau went to jail for one night but was bailed out by his aunt, who also paid his tax bill) • Treaty of Guadeloupe-Hidalgo, 1848—takes land from Mexico (current SW USA & California) • Wilmot Proviso during Mexican War aims to withdraw war funding if president won’t pledge that no land taken from Mexico would be used as slave territory(failed in the Senate) 12. Zachary Taylor, 1849-1850, Whig; VP - Millard Fillmore 13. Millard Fillmore, 1850-1853, Whig; Secretary of State - Daniel Webster • Compromise of 1850—California free, popular sovereignty in Utah and New Mexico Territories, stronger fugitive slave law, no more slave trade in DC • Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 1850 (Britain and U. S. agree not to expand in Central America if the canal is built, neither would build canal w/o other being able to use it) • Uncle Tom's Cabin, 1852 published by Harriet Beecher Stowe in response to the stringent fugitive slave law put in place by Compromise of 1850 14. Franklin Pierce, 1853-1857, Democrat; VP - King • Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1854—popular sovereignty within the Louisiana Territory (repeals Missouri Compromise) • Underground Railroad and Abolition movement pick up speed • Bleeding Kansas—Civil war over status of territory • Potawatomie Massacre (John Brown)—attack on pro-slavery settlers in Kansas • Ostend Manifesto, 1854 (secret plan to acquire Cuba from Spain and make it a slave state) • Commodore Matthew Perry--Japan opened to world trade, 1853 15. James Buchanan, 1857-1861, Democrat; VP- Breckinridge • Kansas still bleeding—Congress rejects fraudulent Lecompton Constitution (would have made Kansas slave state) • Dred Scott decision, 1857—slavery cannot be legally excluded from territories (property), slaves are not citizens and blacks (even free blacks) have no Constitutional rights that white men need respect • Hinton Helper’s The Impending Crisis of the South (1857) argues against slavery on economic grounds—it hinders the economic growth of the south and especially hurts white non-slave owners (the vast majority of whites); book is used as campaign material for Republicans • Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 1858 (Douglass’ Freeport Doctrine alienates southerners) • John Brown’s raid on arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia • Election of Lincoln (1860) on Republican platform opposing expansion of slavery into new territories provokes southern secession • Crittenden Compromise debated in Congress as SC was debating secession—compromise would have extended old 36 30’ line to California and added Constitutional amendments protecting southern slavery and compensating for runaways—Lincoln worked behind the scenes to kill the deal as it would permit the expansion of slavery. • When southern states began seceding, Buchanan did nothing ________________________________________ Civil War, 1861-1865 and Reconstruction Era 1863-1877 16. Abraham Lincoln, 1861-1865, Republican; VP - Andrew Johnson Secy of State - William H. Seward (New York); Secy of Treasury - Salmon P. Chase; Secy of War - Edwin M. Stanton • Civil War, 1861-1865 • Suspension of Habeas Corpus to reduce impact of Copperhead agitation (ex parte Merryman: Federal Circuit court ruling—with Chief Justice Roger Taney presiding—president cannot suspend habeas corpus—Lincoln ignored the ruling; Congress formally suspended HC in 1863) • Civilians in Military Courts (Supreme Court ruling in ex parte Milligan—government cannot try civilians in military courts when civilian courts are operational; ruling takes place after war is over) • Emancipation Proclamation, 1863—frees slaves in rebelling states (issued after Union victory at Antietam) • Homestead Act, 1862 –free western land to any settlers who farmed it for 5 years • Legal Tender Act (1st paper currency) • Morill Act, 1862 (created agricultural colleges funded by federal land sales) • Pacific Railway Act (federal aid to railroad companies) • Gettysburg Address: America was "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal." (ideals expressed in Declaration of Independence) • Battle of Gettysburg—July 1863—ended Lee’s invasion of the North, sometimes cited as the war’s turning point • Siege of Vicksburg—May to July 1863; Union gets control of Mississippi River, cutting south in two • Presidential Reconstruction (Amnesty/10% Plan)—a lenient program • Assassinated April 14th, 1865, by John Wilkes Booth (Copperhead from Maryland) 17. Andrew Johnson, 1865, 1869, Republican (former Democrat); Secretary of State - William H. Seward • Adoption of Black Codes in the South under Presidential Reconstruction • 13th Amendment, 1865—no slavery • 14th Amendment, 1868—citizenship for African Americans, no state can deny citizens equal protection, due process, privileges & immunities of a U.S. citizen (regardless of race or previous condition of servitude); later used by Supreme Court to apply principles of Bill of Rights to state governments (sometimes called the national supremacy amendment) • Reconstruction Act, 1867—Military Reconstruction puts south under military occupation; Command of Army act requires President to get Ulysses Grant’s approval on military decisions; passed by “Radical” Republicans • Tenure of Office Act, 1867 –president needs Senate approval to fire advisors • Impeachment Trial, 1868—acquitted by a slim margin (2/3 vote needed to convict) • Formation of KKK 18. Ulysses S. Grant, 1869-1877, Republican; VP - Colfax, Wilson; Secretary of State - Hamilton Fish • 15th Amendment, 1870—black male suffrage • Use of military to suppress KKK violence • First Transcontinental Railroad, 1869—subsidized by Federal gov’t (land grants, loans, military protection) • Tweed Ring, NYC—Democratic party political machine (Boss Tweed) • Panic of 1873—over expansion in business (mainly RRs) • Crime of ’73 (demonetization of silver; hard money supporters thought it would increase faith in American economy thereby lessening the impact of the financial panic) • Crédit Mobilier—scandal involving payola from RR companies to gov’t employees • Whiskey Ring—scandal involving payola from whiskey taxes • Democrat Redeemer governments begin to take over in the south; Republican party loses interest in protecting civil rights as “gilded age” begins. The process of complete disenfranchisement and strict Jim Crow takes about 20 years to complete. (Plessy is 1896) ________________________________________ The Gilded Age, 1877-1900: Growth of Big Business 19. Rutherford B. Hayes, 1877-1881, Republican; VP - Wheeler • Compromise of 1877 over the disputed Hayes-Tilden 1876 election—officially ends Reconstruction; remaining troops withdrawn from the South • Gilded Age Presidents are generally “Laissez-faire” in a pro-business, anti-labor kind of way • Munn v. Illinois 1876 (allows state “Granger Laws” regulating RR rates—private property, if used for the public good can be regulated—will be overruled in Wabash case) • Bland-Allison Act, 1878 (some coinage of silver at 16:1) • Railroad Strike of 1877—Hayes calls in federal troops, they shoot at rioting/striking workers—killing 70 20. James A Garfield, 1881, Republican; VP - Chester A. Arthur; Secy of State - James A. Blaine • Assassinated by C. Julius Guiteau, mentally ill disgruntled office seeker; sparks civil service reform 21. Chester A. Arthur, 1881-1885, Republican; Secretary of State - James A. Blaine • Pendleton Act, 1883 (set up civil service commission) • Chinese Exclusion Act bans Chinese immigrant laborers • Civil Rights Cases (1883)—Supreme Court rules that 14th Amendment does not protect against acts of individuals or private organizations 22. Grover Cleveland, 1885-1889, Democrat; VP - Hendricks • Knights of Labor, 1886 –Terence Powderly organizes skilled/unskilled workers in one national union • Haymarket Riot, 1886 –contributes to violent/anarchic image of labor • Wabash v. Illinois, 1886 (states cannot regulate RR rates on lines that ship interstate) • Interstate Commerce Act, 1887 –federal law regulating RRs, very weakly enforced until Progressive Era 23. Benjamin Harrison, 1889-1893, Republican; VP – Morton; Secretary of State - James A. Blaine • Sherman Anti-trust Act, 1890—combinations in restraint of trade are illegal; supposed to regulate monopolies, instead is used against labor unions • Populist Party Platform, 1892—farmers demand free silver, gov’t ownership of RRs, telephone, telegraph, 8 hour day for workers, etc. (farm land under cultivation has increased dramatically & new technology increases production as well; causes commodity prices to drop); the Democratic Party will absorb the Populists when it takes up the “free silver” issue and the Populists decide to support William Jennings Bryan in 1896 • North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington become states, 1889; Idaho and Wyoming, 1890 • McKinley Tariff, 1890 • Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 1890—increased silver coinage (repealed in 1893 after economic panic) • Panic of 1893—the Gilded Age economy was an unstable boom/bust economy 24. Grover Cleveland, 1893-1897, Democrat; Second Administration (only President to serve two non-consecutive terms); VP - Stevenson • Panic of 1893—the recession continues • Hawaiian incident, 1893—coup led by American businessmen dethrones Queen Lili • Venezuelan Boundary Affair, 1895—dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana • Pullman Strike, 1894—response to a 25% wage cut (because of depression) without corresponding cuts in rents/food prices in the company town; Eugene Debs and the American Railway Union joined the Pullman workers in a sympathy strike. Grover Cleveland sends in troops and United States Marshalls; argues that the intervention was justified b/c the strike interfered with delivery of U.S. Mail • Wilson-Gorman Tariff 1894—slight reduction in rates, plus 2% income tax (declared unconstitutional by SC in 1895) • American Federation of Labor—Samuel Gompers, Bread and Butter Unionism • Wilson-Gorman Tariff, 1894—contained small income tax, declared unconstitutional by SC in 1895 • Plessy v. Ferguson 1896—upholds racial segregation (RR cars); “separate but equal” doctrine 25. William McKinley, 1897-1901, Republican VP - Garet Hobart, 1896-1900; VP - Theodore Roosevelt; Secretary of State - John Hay • New Imperialism—America looks beyond its borders for new markets/economic opportunity; perhaps a response to the “closing” of the frontier announced in the 1890 census? Remember the Turner Thesis (The Influence of the Frontier on American History-1893) • Spanish-American War, April 1898 - February 1899 –Cuba becomes a Protectorate (Platt Amendment to Cuban Constitution gives United States influence); U.S. gets Guam and Philippines as well—war for Cuba was prompted by sympathy for Cuban independence, American investments in Cuba, and American Yellow Journalism (Hearst and Pulitzer), the spark was the sinking of the Maine in Havana Harbor • War in the Philippines (Philippines fight against U.S. control) • American Anti-Imperialist League—born out of distaste for imperialism in general and the Philippine situation in particular; Prominent Americans (Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie) ask how are we spreading democracy if we are forcing them to be under U.S. control? How are we going to defend this new empire we are building? Why are we abandoning our isolationist tradition? • The Insular Cases (1901)—a group of S.C. decisions which rule that Constitutional protections/rights do not automatically apply to United States territories (“Does the Constitution follow the flag?”) • Open Door Policy, 1899 –Sec. of State John Hay writes a note that says United States should have free access to Chinese markets; Europeans ignore it until U.S. helps suppress the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 • McKinley was assassinated by anarchist Leon Czolgosz, 1901 ________________________________________ The Progressive Era, 1900-1920: A response to problems created during Gilded Age 26. Theodore Roosevelt, 1901-1908, Republican; VP – Fairbanks; Secretary of State - John Hay, Elihu Root • TR ushers in the “Progressive Era” on the National Level (it started at local & state level in 1890s); takes the Republican party in a new direction (using power of national gov’t to curb business abuses and protect consumers); Progressives want reform, but are NOT socialists; more interested in saving the system. • Stewardship Theory—TR’s belief that the president was a “steward” for the people; able to do anything as long as it was not specifically prohibited by the Constitution; saw himself as a Jeffersonian in his faith in the common man and a Hamiltonian in his belief in big government • DOMESTIC POLICY: "Square Deal" (what TR said he got for both workers and management in the coal strike—TR threatened to take over the coal mines if owners won’t negotiate with labor) • Environmental Conservation—set aside national parkland • Hepburn Act, 1906—stronger RR regulation • Pure Food and Drug Act, Meat Inspection Act, and "muckrakers", 1906—consumer protection • Dinner at White House with Booker T. Washington • Trust-busting—Sherman Act used to break monopolies; TR did NOT think all monopolies were bad, only those that worked against the public interest were broken up • FOREIGN POLICY: Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, 1904—Big Stick, Police Power (interventionism) • Panama Canal, 1903-1914; TR: “I took the canal and let Congress debate!” (canal was recommended by Alfred Mahan’s in The Influence of Sea Power on History—Mahan argued for a strong navy, Pacific naval fueling stations, and an isthmian canal) • Portsmouth Treaty, 1905—Russo-Japanese War (TR wins Nobel Prize) • Gentleman's Agreement with Japan, 1904—Japan will cut off emigration of workers; TR promises reduced discrimination against Japanese-Americans on West Coast • Hague Conferences, 1899 and 1907—attempt to reduce armaments and secure a world court • Venezuelan Debt Controversy, 1902— TR warns Germany to stay away (impetus for Roosevelt Corollary) • Dominican Republic Crisis, 1902—United States takes over customs duty collections to pay DR’s European debt 27. William Howard Taft, 1909-1913, Republican; VP - Sherman • Paine-Aldrich Tariff, 1909—Taft disappoints Progressives when he fails to lower duties • Pinchot-Ballinger controversy, 1909 (conservation v. reclamation) • "Dollar Diplomacy" –United States would protect investments overseas • Trustbusting—Taft breaks more monopolies than TR • 1912 Election—Progressive Party (TR) splits Republican vote, giving victory to Wilson • When Progressive Republicans bolt the party to vote for TR under the “Bull Moose/Progressive Party” ticket, conservative Republicans are left in control of the Republican Party (in the 1920s, the Republican party will be the conservative/laissez-faire/pro-business party) 28. Woodrow Wilson, 1913-1921, Democrat; VP - Marshall • New Freedom—Wilson’s label for his Progressive agenda • Underwood-Simmons Tariff, 1913—lowers duties, especially on consumer goods • Progressive Amendments: 16th (income tax is progressive b/c rich pay more than poor), 17th (direct election of senators increases democracy), 18th (Prohibition of alcohol is the culmination of the temperance movement going all the way back to 1830s), and 19th (women’s suffrage, again goes way back to women’s rights movement—remember Seneca Falls in 1830s—although the idea of suffrage was just a wee bit radical in the ante-bellum era) • Federal Reserve System, 1913—allows money supply to expand and contract with economic needs; yeah it’s more complicated than that but that’s all you’re gonna get • Federal trade Commission, 1914—watchdog agency to prevent formation of trusts • Clayton Anti-trust Act, 1914—anti trust law that specifically targets price fixing and interlocking directorates; also says that labor unions are not “per se” combinations in restraint of trade (Sherman Act of 1890 did not mention labor and so was often used by courts to issue injunctions against unions/strikers) • A good argument can be made that the specific goals of reformers of the Progressive Era were much more far reaching than any other reform era in American history (programs are specifically targeted to effect economic, social and political change; the N.D. is specifically economic—but will have social and political ripple effects; the Great Society is specifically economic—uplift inner cities/improve economic situation for African Americans—but again has social and political effects) • Wilson allowed segregation in federal government (begun by postmaster general); he also applauded (literally and figuratively) Birth of a Nation • Troops to Nicaragua, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Virgin Islands, Mexico (Moral Diplomacy) • The Lusitania, May 1915; The Sussex Pledge, The Arabic Pledge (Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare violates U.S. neutral rights; so does British interference w/ American trade, but sinking ships and killing civilians is obviously taken more seriously) • "Fourteen Points," January 1917 –plan to prevent future world war by addressing the causes of WWI; reduction of armaments, self determination, etc. (League of Nations 14th point) • Espionage Act & Sedition Act—citizens cannot interfere with war effort, raising of troops, or insult the government and/or the Constitution • Schenck v. United States—upholds conviction of man distributing anti-military/anti-draft pamphlets; speech that creates a clear and present danger is not protected by 1st Am • Abrams v. United States—upholds conviction of a man handing out pamphlets arguing against U.S. intervention in Russian Revolution • Selective Service Act—the draft • War Industries Board—to control war production (under Bernard Baruch)—War Labor Board (Taft) to prevent labor disputes (AFL cooperates with war effort w/ no-strike pledge) • The Creel Committee on Public Information (war propaganda galvanizes American support of war effort) • Food Board (Herbert Hoover)—voluntary efforts (Victory Gardens, Meatless Mondays, Wheat-less Wednesdays, When in doubt, eat potatoes! Effectively cuts domestic use of farm goods (no rationing) • The Great Migration—500,000 African Americans leave the south • Treaty of Versailles, 1919-1920; ends WWI, Wilson has to compromise many of his “points” to get European powers to agree to League of Nations, but he rationalizes that as long as we have the League it will be OK—Wilson loses the battle to get the Treaty/League of Nations ratified by the Senate • The Lodge Reservations—14 reservations against the treaty; Wilson won’t budge • The Red Scare/Palmer Raids—5000 arrested, 250 deported ________________________________________ The Roaring Twenties, 1920-1929: General social nuttiness combined with Conservatism in Government 29. Warren G. Harding, 1921-1923, Republican; VP - Calvin Coolidge; Secretary of State - Charles Evans Hughes • Harding campaigned on “Return to Normalcy;” best interpretation of this phrase is probably more laissez-faire and less global involvement • Farm Depression begins when demand of WWI era drops; farmers remain depressed throughout 20s • Teapot Dome—scandal involving government oil reserves (Harding’s administration was involved in several corruption scandals, this was the biggest) • Washington Naval Conference, 1921-1922 –armament reductions • Fordney-McCumber Tariff, 1922—raised average tariff rate to 40% (reversal of Progressive era policy) • Immigration Acts of 1921 & 1924—growing nativism, restrictions on S & E Europeans • Regulatory agencies (ICC, FTC) obviously still exist in the 1920s, but they act to support the needs of Big Business (one of the ways that Progressive-ism loses momentum in 1920s); also Sec. of Treasury Andrew Mellon instituted a program of overall tax cuts (particularly valuable to the wealthy) • Good Neighbor Policy—1921; $25 m. to Columbia (old Panama Canal deal) 30. Calvin Coolidge, 1923-1929, Republican; VP – Dawes; Secretary of State - Frank Kellogg • Vetoes farm aid (twice) program of gov’t buying farm surpluses (didn’t work when Hoover tried it later, but might have been a good start if initiated before the overall depression hit?) • Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928 –outlaws war as an instrument of foreign policy—obviously quite effective. • Scopes Trial—monkey trial exemplifies the cultural battle between old and new values • Stock Market Speculative Boom/margin buying—unregulated stock market • Rise of mass consumption/credit buying—Americans were drying up their future purchasing power (over expansion of credit is a classic cause of depression) • The New Klan—pro WASP; anti-anything else; membership peaks in mid-20s, probably about 5 m. 31. Herbert Hoover, 1929-1933, Republican; VP – Curtis; Secretary of State - Henry L. Stimson • Releases the Clark memo denying U.S. right to intervene in Latin American affiars • National Origins Immigration Act, 1929 • Panic and Depression begin in 1929; Stock Market Crash is the first symptom • Requests volunteerism/resists direct federal aid—perceived as uncaring • Some public works projects (but not much) • Hawley-Smoot tariff, 1930—causes reprisals • Federal Farm Board/Agricultural Marketing Act 1929-1931 (purchases farm surpluses; spent money but didn’t help much, as overproduction was the big problem) • Reconstruction Finance Corporation (lends $ to business—FDR kept this program but obviously supplemented it w/ many others) • Did not support direct relief (rugged individualism) as he believed it would hurt more than it helped • The Bonus Expeditionary Force—Spring to summer of 1932; 17,000 needy WWI vets with their families protest in DC for federal bonuses to be paid early (money was not due until 1945 but Congress was debating giving it to them early); Hoover had federal troops clear them out (commanded by General Douglas MacArthur, who thought the marchers were trying to overthrow the gov’t, obviously a communist plot); troops used bayonets and tear gas; 2 vets were shot and killed, 2 babies died from tear gas, many protestors were wounded. Huge public relations snafu right before the 1932 election. • Hoovervilles, Hoover flags (empty, inside-out pockets) —people tended to blame Hoover for the G.D. ________________________________________ The New Deal, 1933-1940; World War II and the Cold War 32. Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1933-1945, Democrat; VP - Garner, Wallace, Truman • FDR appealed to voters: compassion, communication skills, try-anything approach • Dust Bowl, Oakies, Grapes of Wrath—John Steinbeck (read it sometime, it’s awesome) • New Deal –restore and maintain purchasing power: Relief, Recovery, Reform • Keynesian Economics/Pump Priming—gov’t spending to stimulate economy (Keynes published his book in 1938; New Deal began spending before that but FDR had always been concerned with too much deficit spending) • FERA, CCC, PWA, AAA, NRA, TVA • Fair Labor Standards Act—minimum wage, maximum hours • Wagner Act—guarantees unions the right to collective bargaining • Social Security Act—payment to old people; comes from payroll tax • FDIC; SEC—permanent reforms of New Deal for banking and stock market • Court Packing Plan—attempt to interfere with independence of judiciary; puts a damper on FDR’s 2nd term • Huey Long’s “Share Our Wealth” Program—liquidate huge fortunes, give the money to the poor • Dr. Francis Townsend’s Old Age Revolving Pension Plan—mad money to old people if they spend it quickly (impetus for Social Security Act) • American Liberty League—New Deal critics: it threatens individualism, free enterprise, states rights • New Deal Coalition (impact of ND on Democratic Party)—unites workers, women, African Americans, immigrants, intellectuals (I’m sure I’m leaving some group out!) and the ever-important MIDDLE CLASS (important ‘cause there’s so many of ‘em!) under the Democratic umbrella (the Democrats have been trying to get this coalition back since the 1980s) • Formation of CIO—John L. Lewis; unskilled & semi-skilled union (merged w/AFL in 1955; AFL-CIO) • New Deal and race: New Deal programs were “color blind” but did not specifically target African Americans, who were usually among the hardest hit by the Depression; FDR had a “Black Brain Trust” • 1933 Renounced the Roosevelt Corollary (TR); 1934 abrogated Platt Amendment (Cuba) • 1933 Recognition of U.S.S.R. • 1934 Reciprocal Trade Agreements (50% tariff reductions for nations that reciprocate) • Tydings-McDuffy Act grants Philippine independence by 1946 • Neutrality Legislation—attempt to keep United States out of WWII • Cash and Carry—allies must pay cash for United States goods and come pick them up • Lend-Lease—U.S. will give allies anything they need to fight the war (not neutral anymore!) • Destroyer for Bases—FDR moves closer to war; gives destroyers to England w/o Congressional approval • Arsenal of Democracy—FDR claims United States can help allies w/o actually fighting • Pearl Harbor—Japanese attack on United States naval base leads to declaration of war • Government during WWII: more economic controls than during WWI, rationing of food/gas; War Production Board halted consumer products in favor of war goods; Office of Price Administration regulated prices to prevent rampant inflation; War Labor Board capped wages (angered CIO) to prevent inflation; Income tax rates go up to fund war (40% of war funding came from taxes; 60% from the sale of war bonds); GNP doubled 1940-1945 (Keynes was right?); National Debt 250 B. in 1945 • Impact of WWII on women: served in domestic industry; 200,000+ served in military (non-combat) • Japanese Internment (Exec. Order 9066); approx. 110,000 West Coast Americans of Japanese descent; the vast majority are American born • Korematsu Case (1944) upholds internment; Congress apologizes in 1988 and awards token reparations • Impact of WWII on African Americans: 1 m. served in segregated forces in military; at home, an Executive Order banned racial discrimination in defense plants (because of A. Phillip Randolph’s threat of March on Washington); massive migration (1.6 m.; 3x the amount during WWI) to north for jobs; African Americans’ experiences in the military and in relatively high paying defense jobs during the war will be a part of the impetus for civil rights later; CORE is founded in 1942 • Yalta Conference—FDR, Churchill, Stalin—free elections in Poland (but Stalin has de facto control of Eastern Europe—foundation for the cold war; Soviets want buffer zone) 33. Harry S. Truman, 1945-1953, Democrat; VP - Barkley • Potsdam Conference—HST, JS, Churchill/Attlee—agree to division of Germany and unconditional surrender of Japan (Truman gets notice that atomic bomb test was successful but he does not tell allies) • Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, August 1945—revisionists (1960s and beyond) claimed the bombings were to intimidate USSR; Truman always maintained bombs were dropped to save lives (some military estimates put the cost of conventional bombing/invasion of Japan as high as 1 m. casualties) • Nuremberg Trials (1945) reveal horrors of Nazi holocaust • Berlin Air Lift—1st cold war conflict with USSR; response to Blockade • Desegregation of Armed Forces—Executive Order 9981 • Dixiecrats break from Dem. Party over Truman’s support of Civil Rights platform in 1948 • Second Red Scare begins—a reaction to the cold war; fears of Soviet infiltration; spies; Truman’s Loyalty Program investigates government employees (beginning in 1947); Alger Hiss case 1948 (former State Dept. official gave information to Russians back in the 1930s; convicted of perjury) • Senator Joseph McCarthy becomes the most vociferous Red-Hunter beginning in 1950 when he announces he has a list of communists who work for United States State Department (pretty effective after the Alger Hiss thing) • Taft-Harley Act, 1947 –Congress overrides Truman’s veto; pres. has power to require a cooling off period before unions strike (reduces power of labor unions) • George Kennan memo/telegram suggests United States contain communism (it grows on “diseased tissue”); Soviet Diplomat Novikov argues that American containment is part of its agenda to spread “monopolistic capitalism” • Truman Doctrine, 1947 –aid to Greece and Turkey (beginning of containment policy) • Marshall Plan, 1947 –aid to rebuild Europe • North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 1949—collective security (Warsaw Pact too) • Point Four Program (aid to Latin America) • Fall of China (1949) despite massive United States aid to Chaing Kai Shek (Truman will be accused of losing China; Secretary of State Dean Acheson’s “White Paper” had argued that no amount of United States aid would stop Mao Tse Tung from winning b/c Chaing was too corrupt…McCarthy later calls Acheson a Red…LBJ will later say he will not be blamed for losing Vietnam the way Truman lost China) • Korean War, 1950-1953 (UN Police Action—no Congressional declaration of war)—after losing China Truman wasn’t about to lose S. Korea • Firing of MacArthur (Truman wants to limit war to Korea, not extend to China) • "Fair Deal" –attempt to extend New Deal like programs are mostly killed by Congress ________________________________________ 34. Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953-1961, Republican; VP - Nixon • Ethyl and Julius Rosenberg executed 1953 for conspiracy to commit espionage (giving atomic secrets to Russians) • Korean Truce/Death of Stalin/re-division of Korea at 38th parallel • 1954 fall of French forces at Dien Bien Phu: with France’s defeat, American military aid to Non-Communists in Vietnam increases (Domino Theory) • Chief Justice Earl Warren appointed (1954-1969)—Warren Court (judicial activism) makes many landmark civil rights, individual rights, due process rights cases (sometimes controversial decisions) • 22nd Amendment (two term limit for president)—a reaction to FDR • Interstate Highway Act—massive federal funding creates jobs; justification = defense • IKE kept all New Deal reforms in place (Social Security, FDIC, SEC); New Deal jobs programs had all been dismantled with the start of WWII • Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas –no separate but equal in public schools; a result of 20 years of legal battles by NAACP led by Charles Hamilton Houston (legal council); sparks CR movement • Little Rock Arkansas—IKE sends in federal forces to integrate school (Little Rock 9) • Massive Retaliation/Brinkmanship (John Foster Dulles)—focus on nuclear forces rather than conventional forces (cheaper); problem = difficult to deal with small global conflicts • Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)—collective security agreement • Suez Crisis, 1956 –Egypt attacked by United States allies; both United States and USSR protest • Hungarian Revolt 1956—movement against Soviet control; IKE refuses to aid • Eisenhower Doctrine—aid to the Middle East (extends containment) • Sputnik—Soviet satellite freaks Americans out; how could Soviets possibly beat U.S. into space? It leads to increased funding of science and math education and fires up the "race for space" • U-2 incident (1960) damages IKE’s relationship w/ Khrushchev (IKE initially denied it was a spy plane) 35. John F. Kennedy, 1961-1963, Democrat; VP - Lyndon B. Johnson • 1960 election—Nixon/Kennedy TV debates (role of TV in modern campaigns) • Bay of Pigs Invasion (failed CIA attempt to overthrow Cuba); embarrassment for new pres. • Berlin Wall built by USSR separating E/W Berlin; becomes a symbol of cold war • Alliance for Progress (aid to Latin America) • Baker v. Carr, 1962 –legislative districts must be equal in population • James Meredith, University of Mississippi: JFK sends Federal Marshalls to protect JM • Peace Corps established • Cuban Missile Crisis, October 1962—showdown over Soviet missiles in Cuba; JFK orders naval “quarantine” of Cuba (blockade, really, but don’t call it that); RFK negotiates removal of Jupiter missiles in Turkey if Soviets will dismantle missiles in Cuba • "New Frontier" = Space; JFK promises the United States will get a man on the moon • Partial Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (no atmospheric or underwater tests; underground OK) • Assassinated in Dallas, Texas, November 22, 1963, by Lee Harvey Oswald 36. Lyndon B. Johnson, 1963-1968, Democrat; VP - Humphrey • Becomes President after JFK assassination; wins landslide re-election against modern Conservative Republican Barry Goldwater in 1964 (BG wins only 5 deep south states plus his own state Arizona) • Income tax cut 1964 • Civil Rights Act, 1964 –no segregation in any public place • Voting Rights Act, 1965 –no literacy tests for voting • 24th Amendment—no poll taxes • CR Act of 1968 –no discrimination in housing sales/rentals • Elementary and Secondary education reform –aid to improve schools • Medicare (old people)/Medicaid (poor people) • Great Society = War on Poverty + Civil Rights (great society has its roots in the New Deal philosophy, but is put into place during a period of overwhelming economic prosperity) • Office of Economic Opportunity/Job Corps/VISTA/Head Start • Urban Renewal (inner city development) • Immigration Act of 1965—ends 1920s quotas based on nationality; hemispheric quotas plus preference to family members and needed professionals/laborers • Gulf of Tonkin Resolution—Congress authorizes LBJ to use force in Vietnam; beginning of combat troops & Vietnam War escalation • Anti War Protests (Hey Hey LBJ)—protests against the draft/war tactics/escalation of the war • Credibility Gap results from LBJ’s and Westmoreland’s lies about the war; especially the Tet Offensive (January 1968) • Brezhnev Doctrine (November 1968) asserts the right of USSR to protect communism in Eastern Europe by force when “forces hostile to socialism” try to turn a country toward capitalism ________________________________________ Detente and Beyond, The End of the Cold War; The New World Order? 37. Richard M. Nixon, 1968-1974, Republican; VP - Spiro Agnew, Gerald Ford • Campaigned for “Peace with Honor” and appealed to the “silent majority” who were sick of anti-war protestors and counter-cultural elements of late‘60s (Democratic party in disarray in 1968 over Vietnam). • Landing on the moon, July 1969 • Warren Burger, Chief Justice, 1969 • Woodstock, August 1969—peace and love, baby. High times for Hippies. • Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1970 • Pentagon Papers, 1971 (NY Times v. United States)—leaked to NY Times by Daniel Ellsberg, Pentagon employee; S.C. rules against U.S. government; papers are not an immediate threat to national security and therefore gov’t cannot prevent their being printed. Documents showed gov’t deception regarding Vietnam going back to LBJ. • Vietnamization (gradual withdrawal of United States forces) • Bombing of Laos and Cambodia • Visit to China, February 1972 (détente) • Visit to Russia, May 1972 (détente) • Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT), 1972 • Kissinger and "shuttle diplomacy," 1973-1975 • Wounded Knee, South Dakota, 1973 • War Powers Act 1973, passed over Nixon’s veto; requires president to get authorization from Congress when sending troops to fight • Allende regime in Chile overthrown with the help of the CIA, September 1973 • VP Agnew resigns, 1973 25th Amendment invoked (Nixon appoints Gerald Ford as VP) • Nixon resigns, August 9, 1974 (Watergate Scandal) 38. Gerald Ford, 1974-1976, Republican; 1st appointed President; VP - Nelson Rockefeller; Neither President nor Vice-President had been elected • Pardons Richard Nixon • Final withdrawal from Vietnam; Fall of Saigon; evacuation of United States embassy • OPEC crisis, 1974 –oil • Helsinki Accords—legitimizes borders in Eastern Europe, USSR pledge to support human rights 39. Jimmy Carter, 1977-1981, Democrat; VP - Walter Mondale • Human Rights doctrine in foreign policy • Panama Canal Treaty signed, September 1977 –gave control of canal zone to Panama by 2000 • Established full diplomatic relations with China and ended recognition of Taiwan • Egypt and Israel peace treaty; Sadat and Begin win the Nobel Prize, 1979 • Iran Hostage Crisis, 1979 (failed rescue attempt, 8 killed, April 1980) • Invasion of Afghanistan by Soviets, 1979 (damages détente) • SALT II –never ratified by Senate (after Afghanistan invasion) but both U.S. & USSR followed it anyway (until Regan withdrew from it b/c he accused Russians of cheating) • "Stagflation" (inflation combined with recession/unemployment)—bad economic news • Boycott of Olympics in Moscow to protest invasion of Afghanistan 40. Ronald Reagan, 1981-1989, Republican; VP - George H.W. Bush • Iranian hostages returned on Reagan’s inauguration day • Aid to Mujahedeen rebels fighting Soviets in Afghanistan • Aid to Contras in Nicaragua • Reagan Doctrine (aid to rebel groups fighting existing communist governments) • 1500 Marines sent to Beirut, Lebanon 1983 to try to keep peace in Muslim/Christian civil war; Marines withdrawn after suicide bomber kills 241 • Invasion of Grenada, October 1983; destruction of Soviet built air strip • Sandra Day O'Connor, first woman appointed to the Supreme Court • Congress passes economic sanctions against S. Africa (apartheid) over Reagan’s veto • "Supply-side economics" aka “Reaganomics”; stimulate economy through tax cuts • Iran-Contra Hearings, Summer 1987 (Oliver North) • SDI—“star wars” research • USSR = Evil Empire until Gorbachev introduces “glasnost” and “perestroika” • START Treaty negotiated (Reagan/Gorbachev); signed in 1991 • Domestic issues: AIDS, Crack, Budget Deficit, National Debt (exceeds 3 Trillion), abortion debate, school prayer debate, flag burning controversy, ERA Amendment fails to get ratified by states 41. George Bush, 1989- 1993, Republican; VP - Dan Quayle • Berlin Wall came down leading to the reunification of Germany • 1989 Gorbachev repudiates Brezhnev Doctrine—USSR will allow Warsaw nations to determine their own affairs without Soviet interference • 1991 collapse of USSR • Invasion of Panama, 1990, to remove anti-American dictator Manuel Noriega • Operation Desert Shield and Desert Storm (the Gulf War aka Persian Gulf War I), January to August 1991—to remove Iraqi forces from Kuwait (Iraq invaded Kuwait August 1990)—“mission accomplished” but Saddam remains in power in Iraq • Bush/Yeltsen (Russia) announce the end of the cold war • Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) prohibits discrimination against disabled in employment and public services; requires accessibility for the handicapped • 1992 Presidential election—major issue is economic slump; Bush (R); Clinton (D); Perot (I) 42. Bill Clinton, 1993-2001, Democrat; VP - Al Gore • North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 1993 –United States, Canada, Mexico • Failed proposal for a national health care system, 1993 • Terrorist bomb World Trade Center 1993 • Brady Law requires 5 day waiting period for handgun purchases • Air strikes in Bosnia, 1994 • 1994 Republicans take control of both houses of Congress; Newt Gingrich “Contract with America” • Participates in air strikes in Iraq • Madeline Albright first female Secretary of State • Monica Lewinsky scandal, 1998 • Impeachment Dec. 1998-Feb 1999; vote 55-45 on perjury; 50-50 on obstruction of justice (2/3 needed) • Participates in air strikes on Serbia, 1999 • UN attempt to aid Somalia; United States forces in Somalia 1992-1994 43. George W. Bush, 2001-2008, Republican; VP - Dick Cheney • Disputed 2001 election (Florida ballots), eventually decided by the Supreme Court • 2001 Bush Tax Cuts (set to expire in 2011)—top bracket lowered from 40% to 35% (all brackets reduced); capital gains tax reduced from 10% to 8%; estate tax exclusion raised to 3.5M. by 2009 (was 675,000 in 2001) • No Child Left Behind Act aims to reduce the income/achievement gap in education • Failed attempt to party privatize Social Security (the “third rail” of American politics) • Hurricane Katrina 2005; Federal gov’t emergency response questioned • Immigration Reform Act failed (causes rift among Republicans—worker/amnesty program) • War on Terrorism, post-September 11, 2001 o War in Afghanistan (2001-present) o Second Persian Gulf War (2003-present) o Patriot Act (Oct 2001; renewed in 2006) o Military Commissions Act of 2006 allows “unlawful enemy combatants” to be tried in military courts o Veto of “Waterboarding” Bill; ongoing torture debate • Banking crisis/housing crisis, economic recession 44. Barak Obama 2009- (Democrat) VP Joseph Biden • economic stimulus plan |