Fallacies



1. (Argument Against the Man)Argumentum ad hominem: Arguing against a person, or rejecting a person’s views, by attacking or abusing his or her personality, character, motives, intentions, qualifications, etc., rather than providing evidence why his or her views are incorrect.

Example: “What Jesse Helms said about pornography should not be believed, since Helms is a prude."

2. (Argument from Ignorance) Argumentum ad ignorantium: (A) arguing that something is true because no one has proved it to be false, or (B) something is false because no one has proved it to be true.

Example: “Spirits exist, since no one has proved that they do not exist."

3. (Appeal to Pity) Argumentum ad misericordiam: Appealing to pity in order to persuade a person to accept a view.

Example: “I should get a B in this course. If I don’t get a B, I can’t get into medical school."

4. (Appeal to Popularity) Argumentum ad populum: Appealing to the attitudes or emotions of the multitude in order to persuade a person to accept a view.

Example: “The number of people who believe in God is greater than those who do not. Hence, you should believe in God."

5. (Begging the Question) Petitio Principii: Assuming the conclusion, or part of the conclusion, in the premises of the argument—arguing in a circle.

Example: Premise: The government with strong aristocratic leadership is best.
Conclusion: Hence, aristocracy is the best kind of government.

6. (Fallacy of Composition/Division): Arguing (a) that what is true of each part of a whole is necessarily true of the whole itself, or (b) what is true of the whole is necessarily true of its parts.

Example: Everyone on the team has a wife. Therefore, the team has a wife.
Example: The United States has a president. Therefore, each state has a president.

7. (Fallacy of Equivocation): An argument wherein a word is used with one meaning in one part of the argument and with another meaning in another part.

Example: “The end of a thing is its perfection; death is the end of life; death is the perfection of life."

8. (Fallacy of Red Herring): Ignoring a criticism of an argument by shifting attention to another subject.

Example: For example, if the topic is a new regulation to control air pollution one person may claim that taxes are too high and that there are already too many regulations. Another may claim that multi-national corporations are taking over the world, and need to be reigned in. A third may describe how much cleaner (or dirtier) the air was when she was a child. None if these arguments are relevant to the main topics, which are will the regulation will do more harm than good, and if there is a better way to reduce air pollution.

9. (Fallacy of Straw Man): Setting up an opponent’s position in a weak or misrepresented version, in order to make it easy to refute.

Example: There is no evidence for Darwinism. Hence, Darwinism is false.

10. (Genetic Fallacy): Arguing that a view is to be rejected because its origins are unknown and/or suspicious.

Example: “The doctrine of the unity of the trinity should be rejected. Constantine deemed it true arbitrarily.?

11. (Appeal to Tradition): A fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that something is better or correct simply because it is older, traditional, or "always has been done." This sort of "reasoning" has the following form:
1. X is old or traditional
2. Therefore X is correct or better.
This sort of "reasoning" is fallacious because the age of something does not automatically make it correct or better than something newer. This is made quite obvious by the following example: The theory that witches and demons cause disease is far older than the theory that microrganisms cause diseases. Therefore, the theory about witches and demons must be true.

12. (Appeal to force): The hearer is told that something bad will happen to him or her if he or she does not accept the argument.

1. Example: Convert or die.

13.(Cause and Effect): Assuming that the effect is related to a cause because the events occur together.

1. Example: When the rooster crows, the sun rises. Therefore, the rooster causes the sun to rise.
2. Example: When the fuel light goes on in my car, I soon run out of gas. Therefore, the fuel light causes my car to run out of gas.

14.(False Dilemma): Two choices are given when in actuality there could be more choices possible.

1. Example: You either did knock the glass over or you did not. Which is it?
2. Example: Do you still beat your wife?

15.(Guilt by Association): Rejecting an argument or claim because the subject shares links with someone or something disliked by another.

1. Example: Hitler liked dogs. Therefore dogs are bad.
2. Example: Your friend is a thief. Therefore, I cannot trust you.

16. (Non Sequitar): Comments or information that do not logically follow from a premise or the conclusion.

1. Example: We know why it rained today, because I washed my car.
2. Example: I don't care what you say. We don't need any more bookshelves. As long as the carpet is clean, we are fine.

Here is a page with lots of other fallacies and in-depth examples and explanations of them.