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| TIMELINE 1942
Jan. 1 -
Jan. 6 -
Jan. 9 - Japanese breakthrough poorly defeated Mt. Natib.
Jan. 10 - The Burma Road to China was closed by the Japanese conquest of Southeast Asia. Jan. 11 - Japan invaded Dutch Borneo, Timor, Celebes. Seized Kendari airbase - finest in all East Indies. Jan. 14 - ARCADIA in Washington ended - the third wartime conference.
CASABLANCA CONFERENCE From January 14 through January 24, 1943, the first war conference between the Allied powers, was held in Casablanca, Morroco. The purpose of this conference was vague. It took steps toward planning the Allied stategy and the end of the war. Initially it was to be a big three meeting between Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin. It became a big two meeting when Stalin declined the invitation. With his country besieged by Hitler and the harsh winter, Stalin didn't feel as though he could attend. Even without Stalin, or maybe because of his absence, the Casablana Conference was successful. It set the basis and direction for the rest of the war. And most importantly, it established the terms of unconditional surrender. Jan. 16 - Donald Nelson appointed to head the new centralized War Production Board to meet the goals established in FDR's Jan. 6th speech. "I have just sent a letter directive to the appropriate departments and agencies of our Government, ordering that immediate steps be taken:
Mobilization of the American economy produced the Jeep by WillysOverland and Ford, 2.5 ton truck by Yellow & GM, FM radio from Edwin Armstrong and RCA, M1 rifle from John Garand in 1936, M1 carbine from David "Carbine" Williams, Liberty Ships of Henry Kaiser, prefabricated and welded Destroyer Escorts, walkie-talkie by Al Gross. OPA & Rationing - The Office of Price Administration was established in 1941 under Leon Henderson to administer price controls that began in the summer of 1941. 8000 rationing board were created with 200,000 volunteers to assist the 60,000 employees of the agency. Food rationing included restrictions on sugar and meat. Clothing rationing restricted silk and nylon. Gasoline rationing began in May of 1942 on the East coast, limiting use to 5 gallons a week.
Half of the nation's automobiles were issued an A sticker allowing 4 gallons a week. The other half of the automobiles had either a B sticker (supplementary allowance for war workers) or a C sticker (vital occupation, such as a doctor). Truckers had a T sticker for unlimited amounts. A black market developed in stolen or counterfeit stickers that were used in 5-30% of gasoline sales. By 1945, there were 32,500 motorists arrested for such false stickers, 1300 convictions, 4000 gas stations closed. OCD & Civil Defense - The Office of Civil Defense was in May of 1941 under Director Fiorella LaGuardia, former Mayor of New York City. Eleaner Roosevelt was an assistant director in September. By the summer of 1942, the OCD had enlisted 10 million volunteers in 11,000 local committees to supervise the community's total defense effort, including blackouts, whiteouts, scrap drives, daycare, and the V-Home campaign. It also included the Civil Air Patrol of 40,000 civilian pilots and coastal anti-submarine watch of local boatowners. A blackout drill involved three stages of warnings. At 9 pm the "yellow" warning signal sounded, allowing 15 mins to get out spotters, to prepare pumps and ambulances, and emergency shelters, and to extinguish all lights. After 15 mins had elapsed, the "Blue" signal sounded that officially started the blackout. If enemy aircraft was spotted within 10 miles, the "Red" warning was sounded. All traffic stopped, air-raid sirens sounded and searchlights turned on. Every scrap drive was successful during the war starting with the first drive in the summer of 1941 that collected 70,000 tons of aluminum donated from pots & pans (only virgin aluminum could be used in aircraft, most of the donated aluminum were re-melted into pots & pans again). Phonograph records were melted for shellac, and 5 million tons of scrap steel was collected in just 3 weeks for the war effort. But most scrap was militarily useless, or never processed. Newspapers piled up but never used; junk dealers collected scrap and sold the good junk to the Government at market prices. The most important result of the scrap drive was raising morale with a sense of participation. The OCD resurrected the Victory Garden program used in WWI to encourage homeowners to plant gardens and raise extra food. By 1944, 18 million gardens grew 40% of the vegetables consumed in the United States. By 1945, the agency had expanded its activities to deal with social problems caused by the war. War Manpower Commission & Women - The War Manpower Commission was a committee formed in April 1942, which governed the mobilization of the United States Military. The chairman was Paul V. McNutt. Over 6 million women entered the work force. 75% of the new workers were married, and 3.7 million were mothers. Most were also over 35 years old. Most women hoped to keep their jobs after the war ended. War Labor Board - This group was created in 1942 by President Franklin Roosevelt and was referred to as the Supreme Court for labor disputes. Unions were allowed to enroll as many new members as they wanted, but workers were not required to join a union. This was a compromise between the union's closed shop (only union members), and management's open shop. War Food Administration - The War Food Administration, headed by John Marvin Jones, was created in 1943 as a semi-indepenent agency within the Department of Agriculture. It was entrusted with the coordination of activities of the offices and bureaus concerned with food production and food distribution. The War Food Administration was abolished in 1945. OWI - Office of War Information - The OWI was created in 1942 and served as an important U.S. government propaganda agency. During 1942 and 1943, the OWI contained two photographic units.
1. A section headed by Roy Emerson Stryker The photographers in both units documented America's mobilization during the early years of WWII, concentrating on such topics as aircraft factories and women in the workforce. Stryker's section at the OWI had been transformed from the Department of Agriculture's Farm Security Administration in late 1942. Stryker's FSA section in the source of a world-famous collection of documentary photographs; the color images from the FSA photographic section are also available in electronic form. The OWI News Bureau had operated within the Office for Emergency Management (OEM) during 1941 and 1942; some photographs from the OEM period are included in this set. Office of Scientific Research and Development - The highly successful military basic research program was established just prior to the U.S. entry into WWII. President Franklin Roosevelt created the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSDR) to direct civilian industry conducting research and development (R&D) efforts required to develop weaponry and to support war related requirements. During the war, the military services primary interest in R& D was at the engineering and production level. General Henry "Hap" Arnold Commanding General of the Army Air Forces, issued orders giving priority to the "continuous production of current types of airplanes". Unprecidented in history, the U.S. mobilized the civilian science and technology (S&T) community for employment in the war effort. Breaking new gound, OSRD was the first federal agency to provide large-scale government support for university-based scientific research. This program of civilian-based research fit well with Gen. Arnold's post-war plans. in 1944, he convened a distinguished cadre of scientists to form the Army Air Forces Scientific Advisory Group. Dr. Theodore von Karman one of the world's leading aerodynamicists, chaired the group. This group contains today Air Force Scientific Advisory Board.
War Shipping Board & Merchant Marine -
In 1938 when a second World War was imminent, President Franklin D. Roosevelt realized winning the war would require many ships to carry war supplies to the fronts. He ordered mass-production of Liberty ships and established the U.S. Maritime Service (USMS) to train the men needed to operate these ships. Joseph P. Kennedy, (Father of President John F. Kennedy) was appointed as the first chairman of the new Federal Maritime Commission in 1937 during which he laid the groundwork for the U.S. Merchant Marine. Kennedy became the Ambassador to Great Britain in 1938. Retired Admiral Emory Scott Land, USN succeeded Kennedy as Chairman, and who also headed the War Shipping Administration. Admiral Land is the genious who put together the ship production training of the men in the USMC, and operation of the vast fleet.
Henry J. Kaiser -
Henry Kaiser was a prominent American industrialist known as the father of modern shipbuilding. His concepts are still widely used today by almost all shipyards. During WWII, Kaiser's yards constructed more than 1500 cargo ships. Kaiser made significant contributions to the automobile industry with Kaiser-Frazer Corporation cars. As an industrialist, Kaiser was the founder of the affiliated Kaiser Companies. As a builder, he constructed roads, dams, tunnels, ships, and a dozen industries in a half century. As the founder of a medical care program, he worked with partnerships of physicians, built hospitals and clinics, established a nursing school, and contributed to medical education. Kaiser was born May 9, 1882, in Sprout Brook, N.Y. He died Aug. 24, 1967.
African-American Soldiers - Dr. Charles Richard Drew
Dr. Charles Richard Drew was a physician who pioneered a way to store blood plasma thereby originating the first "Blood Bank". He served as Director of the First Plasma Division Blood Transfusion Association. This British organization supplied plasma for British troops during WWII. In 1941, Dr. Drew was appointed to be the first director of the American Red Cross Blood Bank, which supplied blood to U.S. forces. He resigned from this position, however, to protest the organization's Nov. 1941 decision to exclude black blood donors. Dr. Drew's research was responsible for saving countless lives during WWII.
African-American Soldiers - Dorie Miller
During the assault on Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7, 1941), U.S. Navy Messman Doris (Dorie) Miller helped move his mortally wounded commander to shelter, then manned a machine gun on the USS Arizona and shot down six Japanese aircraft. This was a particularly notable accomplishment, since combat positions were not open to black sailors and Miller had no formal training on this kind of weapon. After a lengthy press campaign, the Navy awarded Miller the Navy Cross, which Admiral Chester W. Nimitz presented in a ceremony held May 27, 1942. Miller was one of more than 600 crewmen killed in November 1943 when the Japanese torpdoed the USS Liscombe Bay. In recognition of Miller's valor, the Navy commissioned a destroyer escort USS Miller June 30, 1973. Jan. 22 - With their back to Pilar Road, Allies held till Feb. - Japanese drive stopped. Homma requested relief - 22,000 more troops arrive, plus 60 bombers. Jan. 23 - 1st weekly Friday meetings of the Combined Chief's of Staff (CCS) - began planning for GYMNAST = Peripheral Strategy in North America. African-American Soldiers - ALCAN Highway In February of 1942 President Franklin Roosevelt approved plans for the construction of a military road through Canada to Alaska. Although a pioneer road, the ALCAN (Alaska - Canada) or Alaska Highway contributed to the nation's mobilization and defense by linking the continental United States to its northernmost territory, an area threatened by Japan's expansion throughout the Pacific region. This road was contructed with the help of three black engineering regiments, the 93rd, 95th, and 97th Engineer General Service Regiment. The ALCAN was dedicated Nov. 20, 1942. Feb. 15 -
Feb. 19 - Eisenhower was appointed head of War Plans Division
Feb. 22 -
Feb. 23 -
Feb. 25 - USS Lexington tried to raid Rabaul, but was driven off. Fleet Admiral Bill Halsey on the Enterprise raided Wake, Marcus Islands. Some success, but minimal damage. Feb. 27 - Battle of Java Sea. Loss of the USS Houston, HMS Perth Feb. 28, De Dutch Admiral Doorman went down with the cruiser De Ruyter.
African-American Soldiers - Tuskegee Airmen
March 7, 1942 Captain Benjamin O. Davis Jr., and four other second leiutenants became the first five graduates of the Tuskegee Flying School. They were also the first members of the 99th Pursuit Squadron, which had been activated with a planned total of 33 pilots and 27 planes. Later known as the 99th Flighter Squadron, the unit grew to 43 men by the end of 1942. These African-American pilots flew over 500 missions and 3700 sorties during one year of combact in Italy before the squadron was combined with the 332nd Fighter Group. In April of 1943 the 99th Pursuit Squadron arrived in French Morroco for training under experienced combat pilots, but they received little help from the white aviators. The squadron had also been sent overseas without much of the required navigational training given to white pilots, because installations without segregated faciilities refused to allow the African-American pilots to land. Despite such obstacles, the first group of "Tuskegee Airmen" trained themselves, and were prepared to fly thweir first combat mission in the Mediterranean by June 2, 1943.
March 17, 1944 the U.S. Army Air Corps' all African-American 332nd Fighter Group first saw combat. Activated at Tuskegee airfield in 1942, Colonel Benjamin O. Davis Jr., assumed command of the group at Selfridge Field, Michigan, Oct. 1943. The 99th Fighter Squadron joined the 332nd in 1944. The Famed "Tuskegee Airmen" flew 1,578 missions, 15,533 sorties, during which they destroyed 261 enemy aircraft and damaged another 148 planes. Germans called the Airmen the "Black Birdmen", while many U.S. white bomber crews referred to their escorts as the "Redtail Angels". The group lost 66 men who were killed in action between 1941-1945. The 322nd received a Presidential Unit Citation March 24, 1945 for "outstanding courage, aggressiveness, and combat technique" while escorting heavy bombers over Germany. Mar. 10 -
March 11 - Cripps-Johnson mission to India. Non-accession, non-interference, military priority but no support for the July 14 "Quiet India" of for Gandhi who was arrested Aug. 9. Mar. 12 - 4 PT boats of John Bulkeley's Manilla Squadron to Mindanao then flew in a B-17 to Australia, arrived in Melbourne Mar. 17. "I have come through and I will return" was later changed to "I shall return" Mar. 19 - Executive Order #9102, "Establishing the War Relocation Authority in the Executive Office of the President and Defining its Functions and Duties." This order created a civilian agency in the Office for Emergency Management to provide for the removal of persons, or classes of people from designated areas as previously denoted under Executive Order #9066 (the internment of all Japanese-Americans).
Mar. 25 - MacArthur awarded the Medal of Honor. Wainwright moved to Corregidor - Gen. King goes to Bataan, both ordered to attack when food ran out Apr. 1 - Patton established Desert Training Center near 29 Palms in California for the 1st Armored Division. Apr. 5 - Indian Ocean raid by Nagumo's First Air Fleet after Pearl Harbor. Air raid on Darwin Feb. 19. Attack on 29 war ships of British fleet in Indian Ocean. Based at Ceylon, but British intercept warned. Sailed out, but turned to Maldives 600 miles south for fuel Apr. 5 - Japanese planes attack Ceylon, but no British ships. Nagumo searched for 4 days - sank 7, including 2 cruisers. Japanese plane losses high - British kept the Indian Ocean. Apr. 9 - King surrendered Bataan against MacArthur's orders, 2000 escaped in small boats, 66,000 Filipinos + 12,000 U.S. military = 78,000 people. Largest U.S. Army ever to surrender. BATAAN DEATH MARCH BEGINS
Apr. 9 - Bataan Death March begins. It's Kept secret until Jan. 28, 1944. P.O.W.'s are marched 60 miles to San Fernando railroad junction, 25 miles west to Camp O'Donnell - partial air field. 5000 to 10,000 Filipinos died on march plus 600-700 U.S. soldiers. 5000 more U.S. soldiers died in camps (Cabanatuan & Davao). Japan believed in bushido warrior code - to surrender is to be a traitor, a criminal act. Japan had not ratified the 1929 Geneva agreement on the treatment of P.O.W.'s The troops started to march in a long column on the dusty road without food or water. For many of the bloody, frail men, this was their last march. One man fell from exhaustion and was then flattened by a passing tank, as all the other troops witnessed this horrible action, other soldiers were hit by Japanese trucks passing by.
The P.O.W.'s were forced to stand by a stream of fresh water but weren't allowed to drink from it, even though they were exhausted, and dying from thirst. After a while one man couldn't take it any longer and ran for the water, falling face first into the stream to drink. Immediately one of the guards ran over, pulled his sword out and cut off the man's head. A great many men reached the end of their endurance. The dropouts became numerous. They fell on the roadside, some making no effort to rise. Groaning in pain, and weeping, some succeeded while others fell back helplessly. As the march continued, the diseased, starving men staggered up the dusty road, prodded by Japanese guards to keep them moving. As one soldier was dying, he cried out for water. He died on that dusty road. The heat of the day was so intense that the men were half crazy from thirst. They arrived at a small stream that was contaminated with filthy water, a bloated corpse filled with maggots, this filthy stream the P.O.W.'s were allowed to drink from as the Japanese guards laughed at them. The Death March ended after 6 days, where the P.O.W.'s boarded a train to the Death Camp.
Apr. 18 - Doolittle Raid on Japan was the most daring operation undertaken at that time in history. Though conceived as a diversion that would also boost American and Allied morale, the raid generated strategic benefits that far outweighed its limited goals. The raid had its roots in a chance observation that it was possible to launch Army twin-engined bombers from an aircraft carrier, making an early attack on Japan feasible. Appraised of the idea in January 1942, U.S. Fleet commander Admiral Ernest King and Air Forces leader General Henry H. Arnold greeted it with enthusiasm. Arnold assigned the technically astute Doolittle to organize and lead a suitable air group. The modern, but relatively untested B-25B "Mitchell" medium bomber ws selected as the delivery vehicle and tests showed it could fly off a carrier with a usefull bomb-load and enough fuel to hit Japan and continue to airfields in China. Gathering volunteer air crews for an unspecified, but admittedly dangerous mission, Doolittle embarked on a vigorous program of special training for his men and modifications to his planes. The new carrier Hornet was sent to the Pacific to undertake the Navy's part of the mission. So secret was the operation that her Commanding Officer, Capt. Marc A. Mitscher had no idea of his ship's upcoming employment until shortly before the sixteen B-25's were loaded on her flight deck. On April 2 the Hornet put to sea headed west across the vast Pacific. Joined in mid-ocean on April 13 by Vice Admiral William F. Halsey's flagship Enterprise, which would provide air cover during the approach, Hornet steamed toward a planned Apr. 18 afternoon launching point some 400 miles from Japan. However, before dawn on Apr. 18, enemy picket boats were encountered much further east than expected. These were evaded or sunk, but got off radio warnings, forcing the planes to take off around 8 am, while still more than 600 miles out.
Most of the sixteen B-25's, each with a five-man crew, attacked the Tokyo area, with a few hitting Nagoya. Damage to the intended military targets was modest, and none of the planes reached the Chinese airfields, (though all but a few of their crewmen survived). However, the Japanese High Command was deeply embarrassed. Three of the eight American airmen the Japanese had captured were executed. Spurred by the Combined Fleet commander Admiral Isoroko Yamamato, they also resolved to eliminate the risk of any more such raids by the early destruction of the of America's aircraft carriers, a decision that led them to the disaster at the Battle of Midway, a month and a half later. Apr. 28 - Fall of Lashio. General William Slim and the Chinese 6th Army were outnumbered. Burma walkout - Stilwell + 114 to Imphal in 2 weeks. May 3 - U.S. sub Swordfish evacuated 12 Army nurses. Over 100 killed, 66 captured (but treated well) 21 escaped and were given medals in White House ceremony. FDR signed Rogers Bill May 15 creating WAAC May 22. (Women's Auxiliary Army Corp) The 1941 Bill by Representative Edith Rogers was opposed by military - WAVES July 30, SPEARS Nov. 22, Marines Jan. 28, 1943. Bolton Bill May 1943 provided federal aid to educate nurses that served in the military. By 1943, WAC directer Oveta Culp Hobby commanded 60,000 women in the Army and was given a rank of colonel. Civilian Jaqueline Cochrane headed the WASP's (Women's Airforces Service Pilots). 300,000 women served in the military but they were not allowed to benefit from the GI Bill, nor were they allowed into the VFW as Vets. They weren't even counted until the 1980 census. May 5 - Imperial General Headquarter Order # 18 Expanded defensive perimeter to Midway and Samoa, to force a decisive battle with U.S. fleet. So far Japan had not lost any of their 11 battleships, 10 carriers, 18 heavy cruisers, 20 light cruisers. May 6 -
May 9 - U.S. non-interference agreement with Vichy Madagascar. Had been kept secret from DeGaulle. British-led peripheral campaign like Iraq and Syria in 1941. May 29 - FDR promised molotov a second front "this year". Paulus and the 6th Army had begun BLUE May 8, taken Kharkov May 22, BATTLE OF MIDWAY June 4 - The battle of Midway, fought over and near the tiny U.S. mid-Pacific base at Midway atoll, represents the strategic high water mark of Japan's Pacific Ocean war. Prior to this action, Japan possessed general naval superiority over the United States and could usually choose where and when to attack. After Midway, the two opposing fleets were essentially equals, and the United States soon took the offensive. Japanese Combined Fleet Commander Admiral Isoruku Yamamoto moved on Midway in an effort to draw out and destroy the U.S. Pacific Fleet's aircraft carrier striking forces, which had embarrassed the Japanese Navy in the mid-April Doolittle Raid on Japan's home islands and at the Battle of Coral Sea in early May. He planned to quickly knock down Midway's defenses, follow up with an invasion of the atoll's two small islands and establish a Japanese air base there. He expected the U.S. carriers to come out and fight, but to arrive too late to save Midway and in insufficient strength to avoid defeat by his own well tested carrier air power.
Yamamoto's intended surprise was thwarted by superior American communications intelligence, which deduced his scheme well before battle was joined. This allowed Admiral Chester Nimitz, the U.S. Pacific Fleet Commander, to establish an ambush by having his carriers ready and waiting for the Japanese. On June 4, 1942, in the second of the Pacific War's great carrier battles, the trap was sprung. The perserverence, sacrifice, and skill of the U.S. Navy aviators, plus a great deal of good luck on the American side, cost Japan four irreplaceable fleet carriers, while only one of the three U.S. carriers present was lost. The base at Midway, though damaged by Japanese air attack, remained operational and later became a vital component in the America trans-Pacific offensive. After Midway Japan emphasized defense, especially in the Southwest Pacific, and fortified Rabaul and the airfield on Guadalcanal. Admiral King ordered the carriers to operate singularly, not jointly like Nagumo's carriers had done. According to John Keegan, Midway "transformed the climate of war in the Pacific." With a shift to the offensive, new axis of attack, victories at Guadalcanal, Aleutians, Buna and Gona in Papua, Operation Cartwheel against Rabaul with Kenney's low-level bombers, Halsey up the Solomans to Bougainville, "there had never been a better campaign such as Nimitz now attempted." June 20 - 2nd Washington Conference began at Hyde Park June 21 -
African-American Soldiers - Jackie Robinson
July 6, 1944 Army Leiutenant John Roosevelt Robinson, one of the 761st "Black Panther" Tank Battalion's few African-American officers, refused orders to sit in the back of a military bus at fort Hood, Texas. He was subsequently court martialed, but aquitted because the order was a violation of War Department policy prohibiting racial descrimination in recreational and transportation facilities on all Army posts. After the war, Jackie went on to break the "color line" in baseball by being the first African-American to play for the Brooklyn Dodgers. The 761st "Black Panther" Tank Battalion became the first African-American armored unit to enter combat Nov. 8, 1944 during an assault on the French towns of Moyenvic and Vic-sur-Seille. The 761st Tank Battalion participated in the American counteroffensive during and after the Battle of the Bulge on Dec. 31, 1945. The "Black Panthers" were able to split the German lines at three points, thereby preventing the resupply of enemy forces. Beginning on March 30, 1945 through March 23 the "Black Panthers" helped to breech the Siegfried Line (or West Wall). This was a code name originating in WWII given to a series of concrete pillboxes, bunkers, and observation posts stretching along Germany's western border Aachen south and southeast to the Rhine River, then to the Swiss border.
Navajo Code Talkers -
The Navajo Code Talkers, whose ranks exceeded 400 during the course of WWII in the PacificTheater, have been credited with saving countless lives, and hastening the end of the war. The Code Talkers served in all six Marine divisions from 1942 through 1945. The Code Talker's primary job was to talk and transmit information on tactics, troop movements, orders, and other vital battlefield information via telegraphs and radio in their native dialect. A major advantage of the Cod Talker's system was its speed. The method of using Morse code often took hours, whereas the Navajo's handled a message in minutes. It has been said that if it weren't for the Navajo Code Talkers, the Marines would never have taken Iwo Jima. The Navajo's unwritten language was understood by fewer than 30 non-Navajo's at the time of WWII. the size and complexity of the language made the code extremely difficult to comprehend, much less decipher. It wasn't until 1968 that the Navajo code became declassified by the U.S. government. July 7 - Paulus took the "hinge of Voronezh". Hitler changed his objective to Stalingrad. July 22 - TORCH decision -
BATTLE OF GUADALCANAL Aug. 7, 1942 to Feb. 1943 -
The Battle of Guadalcanal was one of the most important battles of World War II. The assault on the Japanese-controlled island of Guadalcanal by the Allied navies, and 16,000 U.S. troops on Aug. 7, 1942 was the first offensive by U.S. land forces in the Pacific Campaign. Additional amphibious attacks simultaneously assaulted the islands Florida, Tulagi, Gavutu, and Tanambogo. The convoys and the land battles on Guadalcanal became magnets for naval activity on both sides. This resulted in seven naval battles:
When U.S. forces finally captured Guadalcanal, it was the first step in a long string of invasions that would eventually lead to the invasion of Japanese islands and victory. The capture of the island was the first breach of the perimeter that Japan had established during the first six months of the Pacific war. Because of this, Guadalcanal is considered the turning point for the Imperial Japanese Army. Aug. 8 - Naval battle of Savo Island - Mikawa vs Jack Fletcher. The U.S. lost 4 cruisers, the worst loss since Pearl Harbor. Poor use of recon and airplanes. Fletcher didn't commit 3 carriers. Aug. 12 - Churchill flew to Moscow to meet with Stalin. Acrtic convoys had been stopped since the loss of PQ17 in June. "One of the most melancholy episodes of the war." according to Churchill. Churchill learned in Moscow of Stalin's URANUS counter-offensive plans . Aug. 15 - Malta reinforced in preparation for TORCH. In mid-August "Operation Pedestal", the convoy which was to mark the turning point in Malta's for Tunis was carried out. Known to the people of Malta as the "Santa-Marija" convoy, since it was concluded on the great feast of the Assumption of our Lady, Aug. 15, the story of Pedestal has been well documented, in particular the saga of the tanker OHIO. The Malta Minesweeping Force paid a vital part in bringing the crippled tanker into Malta. Aug. 17 - 1st bombing raid of German forces at Rouen in France by American 8th Air Force, but American planes were diverted to North Africa. Aug. 20 - Cactus AF on Henderson Field - key to defense. Aug. 21 - Battle at Tenaru Sandbar.
September - U.S. reinforced to 20,000 - Vandergrift established a perimeter defense. Sept. 15 -
Sept. 22 - Montgomery learned from Enigma that Rommel was taken to Germany due to a stomach ailment, and was replaced by Georg Stumme; he would return to North Africa Oct. 25, but it would be too late to stop the British attack Nov. 4 in the south against weak Italian tanks, causing Rommel to disobey Hitler's "Stand Fast" order against retreat. Sept. 25 - FDR dedicated Camp Pendleton October - Known as the "month of despair" Oct. 11 -
Oct. 14 - Bloodiest day at Stalingrad. Germans advanced to the Tractor Factory on the Volga. Oct. 23 -
African-American Soldiers - Hugh Mulzac
On Oct. 24, 1942 at least four African-American soldiers captained Merchant Marine "Liberty Ships" during WWII. The best known was Hugh Mulzac, who was the first African-American captain of an American Merchant Marine ship. Although he was the first African-American sailor to earn a shipmaster's license in 1920, this was his first command position because racism had denied him earlier opportunities to serve as captain. While in charge of the mixed-crew liberty ship SS Booker T. Washington, Mulzac and his men saw action several times while on convoy duty in the Atlantic. The ship made 22 round trip voyages in the five years (1942-1947) it was in operation, and carried 18,000 troops to the European and Pacific theaters. Unlike the armed forces, the Merchany Marine was integrated from the start of WWII. Of the government-build "liberty ships" 14 were christened for outstanding African-Americans, 4 for deceased African-Americans, and four for African-American colleges. The Booker T. Washington was turned over to the Maritime Commission in 1947. Oct. 24 - Matanikau River
Nov. 3 - Midterm elections in the U.S. - Republicans gained some seats, but the Democrats still kept control of Congress. Nov. 4 - Montgomery's breakthrough at El Alamein.
Nov. 8 - TORCH landings begin at three points
Tunisian Victory film released in Aprill of 1944, emphasized British-American unity in the "ACROBAT" landings, told through the narration of the British soldier "George" and the American soldier "Joe", the film itself is the first joint film production of Frank Capra and the British under Roy Boulting, produced after the enormous success of Boulting's British film, Desert Victory. Nov. 8 - A large U.S. task force left New Caledonia on Nov. 8, 1942 bringing reinforcements and supplies to the beleaguered Marines at Guadalcanal. At the same time the Japanese had sent a contingent of their navy to resupply their army on the other side of the Island. On the evening of Nov. 12th air reconnaissance discovered the approach of the Japanese taskforce. The engagement began at 1:45 am. All ships unleashed a barrage of heavy armaments at point blank range. Within 30 mins the engagement was over. Japan had lost a battleship and two destroyers. Five of the 13 U.S. ships were either sunk or heavily damaged. One of the damaged ships was the USS Juneau...the ship the seven Sullivan brothers were aboard. Although it had received a torpedo to its port side the Juneau was still afloat. At daybreak the remaining U.S. ships headed back to their base. Late that morning, a torpedo launched from a Japanese submarine, struck the Juneau near the ammunition supply area. "When the torpedo hit there was a single explosion and the whole ship went up into pieces. The whole ship disappeared in a large cloud of black, yellow, and brown smoke. Debris showered down onto the other ships in formation for several minutes after the explosion". Thus Captain Gilbert, the acting Commander of the task force, described what he saw when the Juneau was struck. The Captian of the USS San Fransisco, H. E. Shonland, reported that "it is certain that all aboard perished." Captain Hoover decided rather than delay the escape of the other ships, he would request that an Army aircraft in the area report the posistion of the Juneau. The pilot did send in a report but it didn't get to the proper authorities. And, even more tragically, Captain Sholand was wrong - there were survivors from the Juneau. It wasn't known how many made it to life rafts; there were at least 80. Among the survivors was George Sullivan, the oldest brother. Gunner's mate Alan Heyn was one of the survivors that was finally rescued from the sinking of the Juneau. He reported that there were 10 days of intense suffering as, one by one, the men succumed to intense heat, their wounds, and sharks. Many were badly burned and died a painful death. They became delirious from hunger and thirst. Heyn recalled how George Sullivan decided to take a bath one night. He took off all his clothes and swam around the raft. His movement attracted a shark...that was the last Heyn saw of him. Only 19 men survived their ordeal. Nov. 11 - As fighting ended in Morroco and Algeria at the conclusion of operation TORCH, the Eastern Task Force advanced eastward towards Tunisia, organized as the British 1st Army under Lt. General Kenneth Anderson. They were targeting the Tunis-Bizerte area, the two important seaports of Tunisia. Far to the east was the British 8th Army, commanded by Lt. Gen. Bernard L. Montgomery, moving westward after its important victory at El Alamein. As the Allies had planned, General Field Marshal Erwin Rommel and his Afrika Korps would be caught between the Allied armies coming from the east and the west.
With the rapidly changing situation in North Africa, on November 11th the German and Italian forces moved into southern France. German Army units reached Toulon, on the Mediterranean coast, by November 27th. To counter the Allied advance into Tunisia, the German garrison there was massively reinforced and reorganized as XC Corps under the command of General Walther Nehring, the former commander of the Afrika Korps. The German buildup went unopposed by the French in Tunisia, whose government under General Henri Giraud was in political chaos, leaving airfields and ports open to German use. By November 16, 1942, the First Army had advanced 400 miles from Algiers, and was inside Tunisia approaching Tunis from the west, only 50 miles further on. But an Allied attack on November 24 was repulsed, and German counter offensives on November 27 and December 1 forced Anderson to withdraw. On Dec. 8 General Nehring was replaced by Generaloberst Juergen von Arnim, recalled from Stalingrad and given command of the 5th Panzer Army, expanded by the recent reinforcements. Anderson ordered the First Army into defensive positions, recognizing a stalemate. German air superiority in Tunisia was a major factor in their success. An unsuccessful attempt on the 22nd and 24th of December demonstrated that the First Army could hold their defensive position while building up its forces. During the last week of 1942 and the first weeks of 1943 the Allies and the Germans conducted limited attacks, trying to improve positions in Central Tunisia. German 5th Panzer Army air and ground forces hammered away at First Army. Most of the battles were centered on rail-road routes leading from eastern ports through mountain passes to the Algerian border on the west. January of 1943, the U.S. II Corp began reinforcing First Army with additional troops, moving into southern Tunisia, adding to the British V Corps in the north and the French XIX Corps in the center. After the fall of Tripoli to the British 8th Army on Jan. 23, 1943, Rommel retreated hastily across Libya to Tunisia, slowing Montgomery by bombing ports of entry, fighting rear-guard actions, and mining roads. By Feb. 6 all of Rommel's forces were in Tunisia and he had joined with von Arnim. Rommel took over the Mareth Line, a 22 mile long series of French Colonial fortifications in southern Tunisia, where the Germans prepared a defense against the approaching British 8th Army. Montgomery and the British 8th Army were delayed by lengthening supply lines while the inexperienced U.S. II Corps did not attack the Germans when they had the opportunity. Taking advantage of the pause, the German 5th Panzer Army and the Afrika Korps combined to launch a heavy armored assault against the inexperienced U.S. II Corps. Four days of fighting around Sidi Bou Zid and Sbeitla from the 14th of Feb. to the 17th of Feb., cost the U.S. II Corps 2,546 missing, 103 tanks, 280 vehicles 18 field guns, 3 anti-tank guns, and 1 anti-aircraft battery. Nov. 17 - FDR defended the "Darlan Deal" at a press conference calling it temporary, and quoting a Bulgarian proverb: "You are permitted in time of danger to walk with the devil until you have crossed the bridge." Was called the "French quagmire" by liberals and DeGaulle. Also rapid German reinforcements in Tunisia stopped Allied drive to Bizerte Nov. 19 - Stalin begins his counterattack URANUS from Stalingrad. By Jan. 3 Paulus will become the first German Field-Marshal to surrender an army. Dec. 1 - 1st Marines relieved
Dec. 25 - Darian is killed by Bonnier de la Chappelle (Murphy agent) Rain caused Ike to postpone the Tunis campaign, instead he rode horseback and dined at St. Georges Hotel in Casablanca with Kay Summersby - His secretary and reported mistress. Dec. 10 - General Homma landed 43,000 troops north and west of Luzon. Dec. 23 - Decision made to evacuate Manilla, fall back to Bataan. Same day as Wake Island surrendered. 80,000 troops plus 26,000 civilians. 106,000,Half rations due to food shortage. MacArthur failed to follow plan Orange. Dec. 24 - MacArthur moved headquarters to Corregidor. Left General Jonathon Wainright's North Luzon Force on Bataan - 5 defense lines "defense in depth". General George Parker's South Luzon Force.
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