TREASURES OF THE
Unpublished Bronzes from the Alxon Hunnic
Period- Kashmir Smast, Mardan, NWFP,
By Waleed Ziad
Enlargement of Em. 1a
PRESENTATION
Note: Robert Gobl’s Dokumente Zur Geschichte Der Iranischen
Hunnen in Baktrien und Indien (hereinafter
referred to as Hunnen) volumes have
been employed as the primary reference. ‘Em.’
will generally refer to emissions listed in Gobl Hunnen, or to the emissions
introduced herein.
Part I: The Hephthalite Lunar Bull tamgha: The Alxon Investiture Senmurv
AE and related coins
The first part of this article
focuses on five (and one additional AE from Bannu) unpublished varieties of Hephthalite
coins from the Kashmir Smast horde, which feature the Alxon Lunar Bull tamgha, and which therefore may be
attributed to the Alxon period, during which time the tamgha was commonly used on AR and AE coinage. (The tamgha is found on certain Nazek issues,
but according to Alram, may have been adopted by the Nazek Huns from the
coinage of Narendra in
The Hephthalite Lunar Bull tamgha, discussed by Gobl, (he refers to
it as the as S1 in Volume IV of Hunnen),
represents the frontal view of a bull.[2] Its horns form the top crescent portion of the tamgha,
implying links between early medieval lunar symbolism and the sacred bull. The lower part of the tamgha, the legs and body of the cow, is supposedly Indian in
origin, being derived from the Nandipada-triratna.[3]
In Gobl Hunnen, the first appearance of the Lunar Bull tamgha is during what he refers to as the period of the Alxon Anonymer Clanchef. Given the fact that the first coinage of the
early Clan-Chiefs closely imitated Sasanian prototypes, it is likely that the
varieties presented in this article were issued after this period, perhaps
during the reign of Khingila or later by which time Alxon Hunnic coinage had
assumed particular features, characterized by a unique artistic style and the
presence of certain symbols.
The weight and fabric of all five varieties
conforms to the Kashmir Smast standard, small crudely struck coins generally
ranging from 0.5 to 1.3 grams, similar to what Mitchiner refers to as the
Hunnic ¼ drachm.[4]
1. The Alxon ‘Duck’ (Senmurv)
a.
AE Unit
1.17 g. /
14.1x13.9 mm.
b. AE
Unit
1.13 g. /
14.7x15.3 mm.
c. AE
Unit
0.84 g. /
1.30x1.22 mm.
d. AE
Unit
0.87 g. /
1.89x1.30 mm.
e. AE
Unit
0.94 g. /
1.94x1.23 mm.
Obv.: Senmurv right holding pearls and
streamers
Rev.: Six akshara Brahmi legend
The author’s collection contains five
specimens of a small, round, AE coin originally referred to in the
The obverse depicts a duck-like
bird holding a string of pearls in its beak, attached to two royal ribbons /
bands. The Senmurv, a mythical bird often depicted on Hunnic coins and found
on a series of Hunnic countermarks (KM 1-12 / c in Gobl Hunnen), is often pictured carrying a string of pearls in its beak
(KM 11 a, for example), or a string of pearls attached to two royal bands. The string of pearls and attached bands were
the two prime symbols of investiture during the late Sasanian and Hunnic
periods. [5] According to Persianate / Hunnic mythology,
the Senmurv is the carrier of the
investiture symbols, which it bestows upon each ruler.[6]
The bands, a device originally
found on Sasanian coins, were adopted by various Hunnic dynasties in their
silver drachms as well as in their AE coinage, including the Alxon, Kidara,
Nezak, and Turk Shahi. In late Sasanian
coinage, prior to the Hunnic invasions into
The Senmurv, or Simurgh, in
ancient
Here it takes the form of a simple
duck like bird, with a straight beak and small rounded body. This is an unusual and perhaps unique style of
representing of this mythical creature.
In the upper left field of the
obverse is the Hephthalite Lunar Bull symbol.
The reverse legend contains six
Brahmi aksharas in two lines, in an early
medieval Kushano-Sasanian / Kidarite style of Brahmi.
The two line legend reads:[7]
Ja Ya Ti
Dha Rma H
The legend reads Jayati Dharma, meaning ‘the victorious
law’. This particular legend also
appears on a Hunnic AR drachm in the Ashmolean published by Gobl.
The title Jayati or Jayatu is found
generally on
Toramana is referred to by title, Jayatu Bayasa (or Vayasa). Mihirakula is
referred to both as Jayatu Mihirakula
or Jayatu Vrsadhvaja. On Narendra’s coins Jayatu is followed by the emperor’s name Narendra or Narana.[8]
The use of the title Jayati therefore suggests that the coin
may have been struck during the reign of Toramana or Mihirakula.
An alternative reading suggests
that the ‘rma’ on the second line is instead
a ‘kla’, in which case the legend
would read:
Dha Kla H
with Dhakla being the name of a potential ruler or clan.
The legend ‘Dha Rma’ or ‘Dha Kla’ also
appears on the reverse of a number of Kidarite style AE units from the Kashmir Smast
hoard, to be presented in an upcoming article.
2.
The Alxon Running Horse
a.
AE Unit
0.46 g. /
14.4x6.4 mm.
b. AE
Unit
0.54 g /
10.1x9.2 mm.
Obv.: Horse
galloping right
Rev.: Lunar Bull Tamgha
Two specimens of an unpublished anepigraphic
AE unit were found in the hoard. These
small rectangular coins feature a highly stylized, crudely rendered galloping
horse on the obverse. Since both
specimens are not centered on the flan, only the forepart of the horse is
visible. The legs of the horse are bent
unnaturally three times, with the foot pointing upward, in a running
motion.
The reverse depicts simply the Alxon
Lunar Bull tamgha within a square
border.
This particular type of horse
image has never been recorded on any Hunnic coins, and does not resemble any horse
images found on coins of the period from neighboring kingdoms. Without additional historical evidence, it is
difficult to speculate further on the nature of the piece.
3. Two tamghas: Lunar Bull Tamgha and Double ‘Bull legs’ Tamgha
AE Unit
a. 0.61 g. / 10.3x10.0 mm.
b. 0.65 g. / 11.8x12.2 mm.
c. 0.59
g. / 11.9x11.0 mm.
Obv.: Double ‘Bull’s
Legs’ tamgha
Rev.: Lunar Bull tamgha
Three specimen of a small round
AE, were found in the hoard.
The obverse features an Alxon Lunar
Bull tamgha in a circular beaded
border.
The reverse features a
hithertofore unpublished tamgha in a
circular beaded border, which appears to be a derivation of the Hephthalite Lunar
Bull tamgha. The bottom portion is identical to the Lunar
Bull tamgha, but the top portion is a
mirror image of the bottom portion.
We may assume in this case,
following Gobl’s lead, that the double crescent tamgha is a local tamgha of
the principality, while the Lunar Tamgha
represents allegiance to an Alxon overlord.
The presence of a number of coins in the hoard with different busts on
the obverse and on the reverse may signify a similar relationship.
1.94 g. /
1.70x1.68 mm.
Obv.: Bust of
king facing right or 2/3 right, with a crescent in front of the bust, and a
headdress (?) resembling a rectangle.
The bust resembles those of Em. 27 in Gobl Hunnun.
Rev.:
While not related to the Kashmir Smast
hoard, I am presenting a coin acquired in 1998 in Bannu (NWFP,
Whether there is indeed a
connection between the two tamghas is
a matter of speculation in the absence of further information. The tamgha
also somewhat resembles the tamgha
used in the civic AEs of the principality of Benaken in 6th to 8th
century Sogdiana.[9] (The Benaken tamgha is composed of two crescents connected by two lines rather
than one line.) Sogd was occupied by the Huns during the early medieval period,
and the classic tamgha of Sogd has
appeared in Alxon Hunnic coinage (listed by Gobl as Tamgha 2, on Em. 33-34, and on drachms of the successors of Shahi
Goboziko in
The lower part of the reverse
indicates that this coin is overstruck, or that a weak counterstamp has been
applied.
5. Two Lunar
Bull Tamghas AE Unit
0.59 g. /
11.0x10.6 mm.
Obv: Alxon Lunar Bull
tamgha in a square beaded border.
Rev.: Alxon Lunar
Bull tamgha. There are two undecipherable crudely rendered
aksharas, one on each side of the tamgha, both of which resemble inverted ‘U’s.
One specimen, a small thin square
AE, was found in the hoard.
A potential reading is as follows. This reading must be substantiated with a
better specimen, and it is also likely the legend is corrupted:
6. AE
Unit
0.86 g /
11.3x11.0 mm.
Obv.: Off-center crowned bust left (?)
Rev.: Lunar Bull Tamgha, two undecipherable aksharas
one each side
A better specimen is required to
determine the true nature of the obverse design.
Part II: The Solar Wheel
In Indic mythology, the wheel
symbol is used to connote the solar wheel, or dharmacakra (the wheel of life).
The solar wheel image has been employed in Alxon, Nazek, and Turk Shahi
coins. With time, suggests Gobl, the
wheel in the Alxon series becomes closer to a flower or star.[11]
Stylistically, Em. 7 below can
without doubt be attributed to the Alxon period. Em. 8 and 9, however, are rendered
in slightly different style. However, among
Hunnic coins the solar wheel symbols below are found primarily in Alxon
coinage. The wheel is pictured in a
variety of contexts, as part of a crown, and with other symbols such as vases
and banners, but a reverse design comprised solely of a solar wheel is only
found in Alxon coins, based on Gobl and Mitchiner attributions.[12]
7. Narendra
AE Unit
1.02 g. /
14.2x12.0 mm.
Obv.: Narendra or
Khingila style ‘tall bust’ bare headed king facing right. Royal band emanating from neck area.
Rev.: Flower like
solar wheel, a version of Symbole 93 in Gobl Hunnen (with one circle surrounding the wheel rather than two).
This crudely struck bronze can
clearly be dated to the Alxon period.
The Gobl Hunnen Symbole 93 style solar wheel is found in AR and debased
varieties of coins issued by Narendra featuring the legend jayatu (Gobl Hunnen 171-173). Emissions 171-173, according to Gobl, were
issued during the Alxon retreat from Gandhara toward the Khyber Pass or the
Also, if Gobl is correct in
assuming that the more stylized flower like wheels are a later variation of the
simple wheel, a Narendra or later Hunnic attribution may be appropriate.
8. AE
Unit
a. 0.55
g. / 13.2x11.9 mm.
b.
0.57 g. / 13.7x11.6
mm.
Obv.: Beardless bust wearing headdress facing
right.
Rev.: Alternative version of solar wheel with ten
curved spokes inside single circle.
The bust on this and the following
coin, due to the crude nature of execution, can not be stylistically linked to
any particular period. The headdress
appears similar to the cap like headdress on Gobl Hunnen Em. 139, from the second reign of Mihirakula, but more
closely resembles Gobl Hunnen Em.
134-136, Em. 151-153, and 158-159, issued in Mihirakula’s capital of Sakala (
While a wheel of this exact type
is not listed by Gobl, a similar wheel (Symbole 44) is found on Gobl Hunnen Em. 127 and Em. 128 (issued by
Toramana in the vicinity of Sakala, before it became the Alxon capital), and on
Em. 177 and Em. 178 (attributed to Toramana and Mihirakula).
The striking of this coin may fall
between the early and mid part of Mihirakula’s reign.
9. AE
Unit
0.72 g. /
13.2x13.2 mm
Obv.: Very crudely rendered beardless bust
wearing headdress (?) with pointed features, wearing what appears to be a
turreted headdress.
Rev.: Alternative flower type version of solar wheel
with seven straight spokes between two circles.
This coin is stylistically different
from the preceding wheel type. The
headdress appears to be turreted, which would be unusual for a coin from
Toramana or Mihirakula’s reign, but a better specimen would be required to
ascertain the exact nature of the headdress.
The solar wheel, again most
similar to Symbole 44, is more like the flower, which may mean that this was struck
toward the end of Mihirakula’s reign or during Narendra’s reign.
10. AE Unit
1.20 g. /
14.2x9.0 mm
Obv.: Trident with a dot on either side
Rev.: Solar wheel with six straight spokes surrounded
by beaded circle
This coin is not minted in the
Kashmir Smast standard, and is of a thick, dumpy fabric. A small number of unpublished coins in this
fabric were found at the cave.
The obverse features a trident (trishula) type tamgha. The trident or trishula, a symbol of Lord Shiva, is the second most important emblem of Shaivites after nandi.
It signifies the three fundamental shaktis
or powers - icha (desire, will, love), kriya (action) and jnana (wisdom). It features on numerous Hunnic coins,
generally those of Toramana and Mihirakula.
The trident featured on this piece resembles Gobl’s Symbole 16, found
on Em. 99, a drachm of Toramana, in which it appears in front of the ruler’s
bust.
The solar wheel depicted on the
reverse, surrounded by a beaded circle, is most similar to Gobl’s Symbole 44, found
on Gobl Em. 120-125, 127-132, and 154-155, all bronzes of Mihirakula and
Toramana from the central
This emission may then be
attributed to either of the two rulers.
Part III: Stylistic Similarities to Alxon Portraits
In addition to the coins above,
there are a handful of other anepigraphic varieties in the hoard which can be
stylistically linked to the Alxon period.
The link is based primarily on the style of the bust of each ruler
pictured, and is detailed below.
Group I: The Seated Ardoksho
Coins
Four varieties feature the Goddess
Ardoksho on the reverse. Ardoksho, often
associated with Lakshmi, is the Persian / Indic Goddess of plenty and
fortune. She is depicted in early Kushan
coinage standing holding cornucopiae and a bow representing the harvest and the
hunt. In later Kushan and Kushano-Sasanian
coins (AE and AR), Ardoksho is depicted nimbate, seated on a throne cross
legged.
While I plan to delve deeper into
this issue, it appears that a disproportionate number of the unpublished
Kashmir Smast feature Ardoksho on the reverse.
In fact, apart from the fire altar, a depiction of Ardoksho seated on a
lion or a throne is the most common reverse image. While a number of Kushano-Sasanian / Kushan
imitation dumpy coins found in the Kashmir Smast feature Ardoksho, there are
additional gods and goddesses found on these including Shiva, Ahuramazd (above
altars), and others. Kidarite and Alxon
imitations, as well as unpublished dumpy Kushano-Sasanian imitation coins, of the
Kashmir Smast feature Ardoksho. It is possible
that Ardoksho was a preferred deity in the Kashmir Smast principality.
It is also worth noting that this
particular Kushan style depiction of Ardoksho does not appear on any Alxon
coins recorded by Gobl, Mitchiner, or Alram, but does appear on earlier Kidara
and Kushano-Sasanian pieces from the Kashmir Smast.
11.
a.
AE Unit
0.60 g. /
15.0x13.2 mm
b.
AE Unit
0.94 g. /
14.2x13.2 mm.
c.
AE Unit
0.94 g. /
14.2x13.2 mm.
Obv.: Bare headed
bust of beardless ruler facing right with unkempt short hair, wearing a diadem
surmounted by a crescent; two streamers behind bust
Rev.: Ardoksho
seated facing
Two pieces of this type have been
discovered in the hoard. The reasons for
the attribution to the Alxon period are as follows:
a) The diadem
and crescent are most often associated with the Kidara and Alxon, originating
with Yezdgard I, and;
b) The artistic
style / certain portrait features, with a combination of short hair and lack of
facial hair are similar to the portraits on a number of Alxon seals (e.g. Seals
30 and 31 in Gobl Hunnen).
Small Kidarite bronzes from Gandhara
(Bannu) picturing busts with crescent headdresses tend to depict kings with
long hair. The execution of this piece,
for the Kashmir Smast hoard, is of a high quality.
12.
a. AE
Unit
0.64 g. /
12.3x11.9 mm.
c.
AE Unit
0.71 g. /
12.7x10.8 mm.
Obv.: Bare headed bust of beardless ruler facing
right with close cut hair, wearing diadem.
Rev.: Ardoksho seated facing
Two pieces of this type have been
found in the hoard. Again, like the
previous piece, the link to the Alxon period is stylistic. The rendition of seated Ardoksho is superb
for the series, and finer than most Kushano-Sasanian and Kushan prototypes.
The portrait on Emission 11b.
appears to be nimbate.
13. ‘Rma’ or ‘Kla’ AE Unit
0.51 g /
12.9x12.0 mm.
Obv.: Bare headed bust of beardless ruler right
wearing diadem (stylistically different from above and crudely rendered). Brahmi akshara
behind bust
Rev.: Ardoksho seated facing
The flan is thinner than the
previous varieties. The akshara on the obverse may be read as:
Rma or Kla
14. ‘Ha Ra’ AE Unit
0.60 g /
11.9x11.0 mm.
Obv. Two Brahmi aksharas
Rev.: Crude Ardoksho seated facing
The legend on this coin most
probably reads:
Ha Ra
This legend appears again in
Emission 19 below. The legend may be
either a royal name / clan name, or a reference to Lord Shiva, who was the
patron deity of a number of Hunnic Alxon rulers.
Group II: Other Varieties
15. AE Unit
0.52 g. /
12.2x12.0 mm.
Obv.: Tall bust, beardless, close cut hair,
facing right, wearing diadem; crude undecipherable legend in front of bust
reduced to dashes.
Rev.: Stylized fire altar with protruding
flames.
We may speculate on the religious
inclinations of the issuing ruler as a new variety of fire altar is depicted on
this emission, distinct from those portrayed on other Sasanian coins, and the
Hunnic coins of Siva worshippers who simply imitated the device. This novel form of altar may indicate that
the issuer of the coin held Zoroastrian beliefs.
16. AE Unit
0.68
g. / 14.7x12.9 mm.
Enlargement of Em. 16
Obv.: Tall bust of Khingila variety, mustached,
with mirror in front.
Rev.: Ghosting of obverse and traces of reverse design.
The obverse design of this piece
is identical to Gobl Hunnen Em. 70,
attributed to Khingila during the first phase after his assumption to the
crown. We can clearly see signs of
cranial deformation. We can therefore attribute this emission to the reign of
Khingila.
Gobl Hunnen Em. 70 is the only Alxon coin featuring a mirror. The mirror symbol, which originates in
Hinduism and takes on further connotations with the advent of Buddhism, signifies
right thought. It represents the dharmakaya, having the aspects of
purity, wisdom, and the ability to reflect perfectly without distinction.
17. AE Unit
0.69 g. /
11.1x10.1 mm.
Obv.: Crowned beardless Alxon style bust right,
wearing earring and necklace. Streamer
to the left.
Rev.: Unidentifiable Zoomorphic figure.
Stylistically, based on the
beardless portrait, we may tentatively attribute this piece to Khingila or
Toramana’s reign. The reason for
presenting this as an Alxon coin is mainly due to the stylistic similarities in
portraiture between this and the bust depicted on Em. 17 below, which is
believed to be an Alxon period piece as it depicts an unbearded bare headed
elongated bust in the Alxon artistic style.
The crown on this emission is
worth noting. While the upper portion of
the crown is not visible, there is a two pronged protrusion emanating from the
left portion. A better specimen will be
required to determine the exact nature of the crown.
18. ‘Ha
Ra’ AE Unit
0.41 g. /
10.7x9.7 mm.
Obv.: Bust facing right. Degenerate legend in front of bust, comprised
of three dashes.
Rev.: Two akshara
legend
The weak strike on the obverse
makes this piece difficult to attribute stylistically. The bust is clearly beardless, and appears to
be without any pronounced headdress.
The presence of a Brahmi legend
narrows the possible time frame to the Kidarite and Alxon periods.
The reverse legend clearly reads:
Ha Ra
Again, this may signify a title or
an abbreviated form of the ruler’s name, or a reference to Lord Shiva, the
patron deity of the Alxon rulers in
Group III: Seated Lion Variety
In addition, there are three
varieties of rectangular coins featuring a distinctive seated lion on the
obverse / reverse, distantly linked to the lion bronzes of the Scythian ruler
Azes II.[14] The reason for attributing these to the Alxon
period is indirect, and based on stylistic elements. One of three varieties (Em. 20 below)
features a seated lion on the reverse and a beardless Alxon bust stylistically
similar to the coins of Khingila or Dhala / Dhali.[15]
It is a beardless bust with large almond shaped eyes characteristic of the
Alxon drachms portraits, and long earrings.
19. AE Unit
a. 0.82
g. / 13.1x11.0 mm
Enlargement of Em. 19a
b.
0.87 g. / 14.1x11.0 mm
Obv.: Tall beardless bust, diademed, with short
hair facing right. Two aksharas in
top right and top left corner.
(While the specimens
in the author’s collection have a clear image of the lower part of the obverse,
a similar variety sold by CNG in Auction 61,
Rev.: Seated lion
with open jaw facing left, tail curled upwards.
Ma / Rma
Ha / Pa
The first akshara is most probably a ‘Ma’
(‘rma’ has also been suggested while
less likely), while the second has been read as ‘Ha’ or ‘Pa’. Note the similarities in the facial features
of the bust featured in this coin and that of Em. 17 above.
Four different seated lion
varieties have been discovered by the author, some featuring unique sets of
Brahmi aksharas. The seated lion series will be addressed in
detail in a subsequent article.
Group IV: Miscellaneous
20.
a.
AE Unit
0.93 g/
11.2x11.0
b.
AE Unit
0.70 g. /
10.9x9.4 g.
Obv.: Standing bull facing left
Rev.: Undetermined; off flan
Two pieces were found in the hoard,
both in fine condition with the reverse design almost entirely off flan. The reason for including this coin in the
Alxon group is that, like the above, they are struck on rectangular flans and the
image is surrounded by a beaded border. In
the absence of better samples, it is difficult to speculate further on the
nature of these pieces.
While the nandi bull is depicted along side standing Siva in Kidara and
Kushano-Sasanian coins, a lone standing bull, features in the AE issues minted
by Mihirakula (Gobl Hunnen Em. 151-159)
in and around the capital city of Sakala.[17]
Not withstanding the fact that we
lack any specimens with clear reverse designs, these coins can be tentatively
attributed to Mihirakula’s reign.
21. AE Unit
0.82 g. /
11.5x10.8 mm
Obv.: Swastika with two curled ends
Rev.: Swastika with one visible curled end
I would like to express my thanks to Dr. Munaf Billoo. The swastika, another early Indic
symbol, is not commonly found in Hunnic coinage. It has appeared as a countermark on Gobl
Hunnen 295, a Peroz imitation of the Alxon “Genuine Hephthalites” series. A derivation with a crescent at one end features
on Gobl Hunnen Emission 108, a drachm of Toramana.
Given the fact that the reverse is
partially off flan it is difficult to determine whether the swastika on the
reverse is of a similar nature.
22. AE Unit
0.54 g. /
9.5x5.4 mm
Obv.: Female deity standing facing right
Rev.: Two Kobadian style tamghas within beaded
border
The female deity on the obverse
resembles Symboles 22 and 87, featured on Gobl Hunnen Emissions 91 and 149,
more closely resembling the latter. According
to Gobl, this figure represents Lakshmi, standing on a lotus flower (the area
below the legs in the above example is off the flan) and is derived from the
“standing queen” image on the Asvamehda (horse sacrifice) dinars of
Samudragupta. Given the frequency of
Ardoksho / Lakshmi portrayals on Kashmir Smast bronzes, it is likely that this
too represents Lakshmi. In both Emissions,
the figure appears in front of the ruler’s bust. Emission 91 is attributed to the later period
of Khingila, while 149 is a later coin of Narendra, associated with the retreat
from Gandhara into
The symbol on the left portion of
the reverse (and possibly the right symbol as well) appears to be Gobl’s tamgha
59. The tamgha features on the right
field of Gobl Em. 289, the Peroz imitation drachms of the Kobadian principality
in
Therefore, it is possible to
attribute this emission to the period of warfare between the Western Turks and
the Alxon in the Ghazni area in the late 6th century, possibly to
Narendra or later rulers.
Sources
Alram Alchon = Alram, Michael. Alchon
und Nezak Zur Geschichte der Iranischen Hunnen In Mittelasien. La
Alram HCD = Alram, Michael. 'A Hoard of Copper Drachms From the Kapisa-Kabul
Region,'
Alram RHC = Alram, Michael. 'A Rare Hunnish Coin Type.'
Biswas = Biswas, Atreyi. The Political History of the Hunas in
Callieri = Callieri, Pierfrancesco. ‘Huns in
Choudhary = Choudhary,
Radhakrishna. ‘A Critical Study of the
Coinage of the Hunas.’ Journal of the Numismatic Society of
Gobl Hunnen = Gobl, Robert. Dokumente Zur Geschichte Der Iranischen Hunnen
In Baktrien Und Indien.
Gobl IHM = Gobl, Robert. 'Iranish-Hunnische Munzen, 1. Nachtrag.' Iranica Antiqua XVI, In Memorium Roman
Ghirshman (2). Gent: 1981.
Gobl SOI = Gobl, Robert.
'Supplementa Orientalia I.' Litterae Numismaticae Vindobonenses 2. Wien:
Osterreichischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften, Wien, 1983.
Gobl SOII = Gobl, Robert. 'Supplementa Orientalia II.' Litterae Numismaticae Vindobonenses 3. Wien:
Osterreichischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften, Wien, 1987.
Gobl SOIII = Gobl, Robert. ‘Supplementa Orientala III.’ Quaderni
Ticinesi Di Numismatica e Antichita Classiche 22. 1993.
Kuwayama = Kuwayama, Shohin. ‘The Hephthalites in Tokharistan and
Northwest India.’ Zinbun- November 24 (1989). Kyoto: Institute for Research in Humanities,
Kyoto University, 1989.
Litvinsky = Litvinsky, B.A., Ed. History of the Civilizations of Central
Asia, Volume III: The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750.
Paris: UNESCO Publishing, 1996.
Mitchiner ACW = Mitchiner,
Michael. Oriental Coins, the Ancient and Classical World. London:
Hawkins Publications, 1978.
Mitchiner ECCA = Mitchiner,
Michael. The Early Coinage of Central Asia. London: Hawkins
Publications, 1973.
Narain = Narain, A.K. ‘Coins of Toramana and Mihirakula.’ Journal
of the Numismatic Society of India: Volume XXIV. Varanasi: The Numismatic Society of India, 1964.
Pieper = Pieper, Wilfried. 'A New Find of Small Copper Coins of Late 4th
Century Gandhara.' ONS Newsletter No. 170. Surrey: Oriental Numismatic
Society, 2002.
Qureshi = Qureshi, I.H., Ed. A Short
History of Pakistan: Book One- Pre-Muslim Period. Karachi: University of Karachi, 1967.
Rtveladze = Rtveladze, E. The
Ancient Coins of Central Asia. Tashkent, 1987.
Smirnova = Smirnova, O.I. Svodnyi Katalog Sogdiiskikh Monet: Bronza.
Moscow: Akademia Nauka CCCP, 1981.
Ziad AEI =
Online:
BMC Online = British Museum
Collections online: Carved Wooden Plaque www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ5991
CNG = Classical Numismatics Group
site and Mail Bid Auction Catalogues.
www.cngcoins.com
Khan, Shaivite temple at Kashmir
Smast = Khan, Nasim. ‘Shaivite Temple at Kashmir Smast: Study and
Analysis.’ PANEL: The Temple in South Asia (Tuesday July 5 9.30 – 5.00)
www.ucl.ac.uk/southasianarchaeology/Temples.pdf
Mallon = The
Coins and History of Asia
www.grifterrec.com/coins.coins.html
Silk Road = The Silk Road
Foundation: The White Huns- The Hephthalites
www.silk-road.com/artl/heph.shtml
Soka Gakkai: Soka Gakkai
Dictionary of Buddhism: Mihirakula
www.sgi-usa.net/buddhism/library/sgbd/lexicon
Zeno = Zeno: Oriental Coins
database- Vladimir Belyaev, Moscow.
www.zeno.ru
Ziad
ACCAP = Ancient and Classical Coins and Antiquities of Pakistan: the collection
of Waleed Ziad. www.oocities.org/ziadnumis