TREASURES OF THE KASHMIR SMAST:

Unpublished Bronzes from the Alxon Hunnic Period-  Kashmir Smast, Mardan, NWFP, Pakistan

 

By Waleed Ziad

 

Alxon Hunnic drachm of Khingila, Gobl Hunnen Em. 74;  Swat.  NWFP, Pakistan

 

This article introduces a number of coins which may be attributed to the Alxon period.  These coins are either stylistically connected to known Alxon coins, or feature symbols (the Lunar Bull tamgha, the dharmachakra, etc.) more commonly employed by the Alxon Huns.  It is my contention that the bronzes introduced in this chapter were issued by local semi-independent governors, or Tegins, in the Kashmir Smast valley, paying allegiance to the greater Alxon Tegins of Hindustan. 

 

The Alxon Huns in Gandhara

 

In order to provide a chronological perspective on the coins discussed herein, the general history of the Alxon Huns in the Subcontinent is outlined below, focusing on their arrival and incursions into Gandhara.  The historical sources in general are vague, and are confined to a handful of Chinese, Greek, and Persian travelogues and histories, and a small number of inscriptions found in the lands occupied by the Huns.  The major primary source accounts include, among others, a) the Rajatarangini of Kalhana, a Kashmiri Brahmin chronicler of the mid 12th century, b) the writings of Sun-Yung, a Chinese pilgrim traveling to the court of Mihirakula between 515-520 AD, c) the Book of Liang, a history of Liang dynasty and surrounding lands compiled by Yao Silian in 635 AD, and d) the writings of Hsuan-tsang, a Buddhist pilgrim who traveled through Central and South Asia in the early 7th century.[1]  The numismatic evidence collected in the last 150 years remains a vital primary source of Hunnic political history.  

 

The Hephthalites were referred to in Sanskrit as the Hunas.  The Hunas who invaded South Asia were most likely an amalgam of tribal governors based in the Oxus region (Gobl’s Anonymer Clanchef).[2]  In the 4th century, we find them embroiled in conflict on the borders of Persia with the Sasanians under Shapur III, Varahran IV, and Yazdgerd I.[3]  The tribe of Huns who invaded the Subcontinent after the Kidara are known as the Alxon Huns primarily due to the Bactrian inscription Alxono found on their early coins.[4]  By about 400-420 AD, the conflict between the Sasanians and the various Hunnic clans seems to have subsided and a central Hunnic ruler by the name of Khingila (‘Shengil’ according to Firdausi) emerges.[5]   Biswas refers to this ruler as ‘Thujina’, or ‘Tegin’, (Sung-Yun referred to him as ‘Lae-Lih’) the first Ye-tha, or Hephthalite chief to establish himself permanently in Gandhara and possibly Kashmir.[6]

 

‘Tall Bust’ drachm of Khingila, Gobl Hunnen Em. 57

 

Gobl dates the long reign of Khingila as ca. 430/440- to ca. 490.[7]  According to Kalhana, it seems that upon their arrival in South Asia, the Huns adopted local religious practices and symbols, and Brahmi as their royal script.  Gobl points out that the kingdom of Kabul, well into early Islamic times was known as Xingil, implying that the king’s name may have eventually become a title.  He also suggests that coins minted under Khingila’s name and bearing his portrait may be attributed to a number of rulers. 

 

It is very important to note that upon arrival in India, the Hunnic lords are not depicted on their currency wearing crowns- rather, plain diadems, helmets, or diadems surmounted by a crescent.  This, postulates Biswas, means that the chiefs striking the coins were simply governors and had no real royal status.[8]  In the Chinese history of Liang, Gandhara is described as a subordinate province under the supreme Hephthalites of the Oxus.  This would confer the status of Tegin, or provincial governor, on Khingila. 

 

The Alxon coinage after the unification of the tribes under Khingila is perhaps one of the most fascinating series in early medieval / late ancient history, where the ruler often intended to depict himself as a fearsome king.  The artistry, while crude at times, often vividly captures facial expressions.  The problems we run into in terms of dating the coins according to portraiture are attributable to the fact that the mints were decentralized and the quality of workmanship varied considerably.[9] It is during the reign of Khingila that Alxon coinage, previously comprised mainly of Sasanian imitations, took on the tall bust form, portraying elongated scalps (from the practice of head-binding at birth), mustaches, heavy jewelry, Hindu symbols, and other ethnic Hunnic features.

 

‘Tall bust’ drachm of Khingila- Gobl Hunnen Em. 81

 

According to Litvinsky, the initial Hephthalite or Alxon raids on Gandhara took place in the late 5th and early 6th centuries AD, upon the death of the Gupta ruler, Skandagupta (455-470), presumably led by the Tegin Khingila.  M. Chakravary,[10] based on Chinese and Persian histories believes that the Hunas conquered Gandhara from the Ki-to-lo (Kidarites) in ca. 475 AD.  Gandhara had been occupied by various Kidarite principalities from the early 4th century AD[11], but it is still a subject of debate as to whether rule was transferred from the Kidirites directly to the Hephthalites.[12]   It is known that the Huns invaded Gandhara and the Punjab from the Kabul valley after vanquishing the Kidarite principalities[13], culminating in the sack of Putaliputra.[14]   

 

Circa 500-510 AD, Khingila was succeeded by a ruler by the name of Toramana.[15]  Under Toramana, the Hephthalites, already established in Gandhara, Punjab, and Kashmir, extended their domain over north western India as far as Malwa by ca. 510 AD.[16]  According to Kalhana, Toramana conquered Kashmir, and ‘collected the old coins called Balahats and recoined them as Dinaras in his own name’.  According to Biswas, the Balahats may refer to Hats, small copper coins minted and used in Kashmir.  While this reference is rather vague, it is one of the only primary source references describing the commonly accepted local currency of the monetarily conservative region.

 

Toramana was succeeded in ca. 515 (according to Biswas, between 510 and 515 AD, according to Gobl, 515) by his son, Mihirakula (or Mihiragula, meaning sunflower), a devotee of Siva, whose ferocity and cruelty, and a terrible 700 elephant army, became legendary.[17]   According to a legend first recounted by Kalhana, in one instance he was marching with his army along the side of cliff when an elephant accidentally fell off the edge.  He was so enamored by the sound of the screaming elephant that he ordered 100 elephants to be thrown off the cliff.

 

Sakala (now Sialkot city in central Punjab, Pakistan) became the capital of the Huna domains under Mihirakula.  Mihirakula is remembered in contemporary Indian and Chinese sources for his persecution of Buddhism. His troops supposedly destroyed fourteen hundred monasteries, primarily in central Gandhara, Kashmir, and northwestern India / Pakistan, the seats of his power.  More remote areas of his empire, such as Mardan and Swat, were spared, and allowed a certain degree of autonomy.

 

AR Alxon drachm featuring a front facing portrait with a two horned headdress, Gobl Supplementa Orientalia II Em. 306. 

The Guptas meanwhile persisted in their struggle against the Hunas, and forged alliances with the rulers of the neighboring kingdoms.  Based on inscriptions at Mandasor, we learn that Mihirakula was defeated and captured by a ruler named Yasodharman of Malwa[18] (Baladitya according to Hsuan-tsang, and possibly the king of Ujjain Vikramaditya, or Harsha) in ca. 528 AD.[19]  The date 528 gives us what Alram refers to as the ‘first terminus post quem’ for the retreat of the Alxon back to Afghanistan.[20]  According the Hsuan-tsang this occurred during Mihirakula’s campaign to conquer Magadha.  During his captivity, his domains fell to a ruler by the name of Hiranayakula, who may have been Mihirakula’s uncle or brother (most likely his brother).[21]  Mihirakula, after his release, then fled to Kashmir where he was received by the local rulers, in particular a benevolent raja by the name of Matrgupta.  Eventually, he fomented a rebellion and had the ruler of Kashmir killed, assuming the throne for himself.  From his new base in Kashmir he attacked Gandhara again, and had the royal family and ministers put to death. He destroyed Buddhist temples and stupas and killed more than half of the people on account of their Buddhist faith. He died during his Gandhara campaign, and according the Hsuan-tsang, ‘was said to have fallen into the hell of incessant suffering.’[22]

We know very little about the period which followed, which was marked by the emergence of the Nazek Hunnic tribes in Bactria and Gandhara.

Based on numismatic sources and on the Rajatarangina, the names of other rulers of the dynasty come to light.  In the Rajatarangina, Toramana is succeeded by Pravarasena, Yudisthira, Narendraditya Lakhana (Narendra of the coins), Ranaditya Tunjina, Vikramaditya, and Baladitya.   Based on coins, we know the names of some additional rulers, namely Jara (Jarana or Jariva), Purvaditya, Purmmaditya, Maboma sahi, Baysara, and others.[23]  Gobl dates Narendra (also referred to as ‘Narana’ on coins) at ca. 570/580 to 600 AD or later, at about the time the Nazek Huns of Zabul established themselves in the political arena.  According to Gobl, the withdrawal of the Alxon Hunas back into Ghazni occurred during the reign of Narendra.  They supposedly retreated from Gandhara to Peshawar, through the Khyber Pass or Khuram Valley, to Gardez, and finally to Ghazni.[24]   The latest Hunnic king (d. ca. 600 AD) is known only by his honorific title Purvaditya.  Dani outlines the chronology alternatively as follows: Mihirakula, Pravarasena (interregnum), Gokarna, Narendraditya Khinkhila, and Yudhishthira.[25]

 

Religion and Symbols

 

In reference to the religious symbols found on Hephthalite coins, it is worth including a short discussion on religion in the Alxon domains of Gandhara.  We know that Khingila, Toramana, and Mihirakula had adopted Hindu practices.  The Hunas of the Oxus, according to Sung Yun, worshipped ‘foreign gods’ and their counterparts in Gandhara honored kui-shen (demons).[26]  On the other hand, Cunningham asserted that Toramana may have been a Sun worshipper, as his title is Jaubl / Javula / Javubl / Jabul (meaning prince), which may associate him with a king ‘Jabun’ who erected a temple to the Sun in Multan.[27]  Mihirakula, before his persecution of Buddhists[28], is said to have taken interest in Buddhism and patronized certain monastic establishments.[29]  The population of Gandhara during the 5th century AD was predominantly Buddhist, with a Hindu and Zoroastrian population, as well as followers of middle Persian deities, e.g. Mithra, Ardoksho, and others, oft depicted on classical Kushan currency.  According to Sung-Yun, ‘the people of the country [Gandhara] belonged entirely to the Brahmin caste (i.e., Aryan race); they had great respect for the law of the Buddha, and loved to read the sacred books when suddenly this king [Lae-lih, or Khingila] came into power, who was strongly opposed to Buddhism.’[30]

 

Archaeological evidence reveals that the Kashmir Smast area in particular was home to a plethora of different religious traditions which seemed to coexist during the early medieval / late ancient period.  Recently archeologists in Pakistan have uncovered an early Shaivite monastic establishment in the Kashmir Smast caves dating back to between the 4th and 5th centuries AD. [31]

 

In the Alxon coins of the Kashmir Smast, we find mainly Hindu symbols, in particular those associated with Siva (also adopted by Buddhists of the region), including the dharmachakra, the mirror, the trishula, scepter, and others.  Persian symbols such as the pomegranate and Senmurv are also featured.  The only depiction of a deity is that of Ardoksho, the Persian deity, which will be described in detail below.  Ardoksho has often been associated with the Goddess Lakshmi. 

 

While adopting the local religious practices and symbols, the Hunas brought with them their tribal tamghas, the most prevalent being the Lunar Bull tamgha, described below, which seems to be the overarching symbol of the dynasty.  A group of new tamghas appear along side the Lunar Bull tamgha on the Kashmir Smast issues.  It is important to take note of these tamghas as they are most likely the local dynastic symbols of the Kashmir Smast principality.

 

 

Sources

 

Alram Alchon = Alram, Michael.  Alchon und Nezak Zur Geschichte der Iranischen Hunnen In Mittelasien.   La Persia E L'Asia Centrale - Da Alessandro Al X Secolo, Atti Dei Convegni Lincei 127.  Rome: Accademia Nazionale Dei Lincei, Roma, 1996.


Alram HCD = Alram, Michael. 'A Hoard of Copper Drachms From the Kapisa-Kabul Region,' Silk Road Art and Achaeology, Volume 6.  Kamakura: The Institute of Silk Road Studies, Kamakura, 2000.

Alram RHC = Alram, Michael.  'A Rare Hunnish Coin Type.'  Silk Road Art and Achaeology, Volume 8.  Kamakura: The Institute of Silk Road Studies, Kamakura, 2002.

 

Biswas = Biswas, Atreyi.  The Political History of the Hunas in India. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1973.

 

Callieri = Callieri, Pierfrancesco.  ‘Huns in Afghanistan and the North-West of the Indian Subcontinent: The Glyptic Evidence.’  Coins, Art, and Chronology: Essays on the Pre-Islamic History of the Indo-Iranian Borderlands. Wien: Osterreichischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften, Wien, 1999.

 

Choudhary = Choudhary, Radhakrishna.  ‘A Critical Study of the Coinage of the Hunas.’  Journal of the Numismatic Society of India: Volume XXV.  Varanasi: The Numismatic Society of India, 1964.

 

Gobl Hunnen = Gobl, Robert.  Dokumente Zur Geschichte Der Iranischen Hunnen In Baktrien Und Indien.  Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1967.

 

Gobl IHM = Gobl, Robert.  'Iranish-Hunnische Munzen, 1. Nachtrag.'  Iranica Antiqua XVI, In Memorium Roman Ghirshman (2). Gent: 1981.

Gobl SOI = Gobl, Robert. 'Supplementa Orientalia I.' Litterae Numismaticae Vindobonenses 2. Wien: Osterreichischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften, Wien, 1983.

Gobl SOII = Gobl, Robert.  'Supplementa Orientalia II.'  Litterae Numismaticae Vindobonenses 3. Wien: Osterreichischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften, Wien, 1987.

 

Gobl SOIII = Gobl, Robert.  ‘Supplementa Orientala III.’  Quaderni Ticinesi Di Numismatica e Antichita Classiche 22.  1993.

 

Kuwayama = Kuwayama, Shohin.  ‘The Hephthalites in Tokharistan and Northwest India.’  Zinbun- November 24 (1989).  Kyoto: Institute for Research in Humanities, Kyoto University, 1989.

 

Litvinsky = Litvinsky, B.A., Ed.  History of the Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III: The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750.  Paris: UNESCO Publishing, 1996.

 

Mitchiner ACW = Mitchiner, Michael. Oriental Coins, the Ancient and Classical World. London: Hawkins Publications, 1978.

Mitchiner ECCA = Mitchiner, Michael. The Early Coinage of Central Asia. London: Hawkins Publications, 1973.

 

Narain = Narain, A.K.  ‘Coins of Toramana and Mihirakula.’  Journal of the Numismatic Society of India: Volume XXIV.  Varanasi: The Numismatic Society of India, 1964.

 

Pieper = Pieper, Wilfried.  'A New Find of Small Copper Coins of Late 4th Century Gandhara.' ONS Newsletter No. 170. Surrey: Oriental Numismatic Society, 2002.

 

Qureshi = Qureshi, I.H., Ed.  A Short History of Pakistan: Book One- Pre-Muslim Period.  Karachi: University of Karachi, 1967.

 

Rtveladze = Rtveladze, E. The Ancient Coins of Central Asia. Tashkent, 1987.

 

Smirnova = Smirnova, O.I.  Svodnyi Katalog Sogdiiskikh Monet: Bronza. Moscow: Akademia Nauka CCCP, 1981.

 

Ziad AEI = Ziad, Waleed.  ‘AE Imitations of Indo-Greek Drachms from Swat.’ ONS Newsletter No. 181.  Surrey: Oriental Numismatic Society, 2004.

 

Online:

 

BMC Online = British Museum Collections online: Carved Wooden Plaque www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ5991

 

CNG = Classical Numismatics Group site and Mail Bid Auction Catalogues.

www.cngcoins.com

 

Khan, Shaivite temple at Kashmir Smast =  Khan, Nasim.  ‘Shaivite Temple at Kashmir Smast: Study and Analysis.’  PANEL: The Temple in South Asia (Tuesday July 5 9.30 – 5.00)

www.ucl.ac.uk/southasianarchaeology/Temples.pdf

 

Mallon = The Coins and History of Asia

www.grifterrec.com/coins.coins.html

 

Silk Road = The Silk Road Foundation: The White Huns- The Hephthalites

www.silk-road.com/artl/heph.shtml

 

Soka Gakkai: Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism: Mihirakula

www.sgi-usa.net/buddhism/library/sgbd/lexicon

 

Zeno = Zeno: Oriental Coins database- Vladimir Belyaev, Moscow.

www.zeno.ru

 

Ziad ACCAP = Ancient and Classical Coins and Antiquities of Pakistan: Waleed Ziad. www.oocities.org/ziadnumis

 


[1] Biswas, 53.

[2] Gobl. 57.

[3] Mitchiner ACW, 222.

[4] Alram HCD, 131.

[5] Gobl. 59.

[6] Biswas, 53-54.

[7] Gobl, 59.

[8] Biswas. 53.

[9] Choudhary, 172-173.

[10] Litvinsky, 141.

[11] Biswas, 46

[12] Gobl, 69.

[13] Litvinsky, 141.

[14] Silk Road.

[15] Gobl, 53.

[16] Biswas. 65.

[17] Biswas. 72.

[18] Litvinsky, 141.

[19] Biswas. 71.

[20] Alram HCD, 131.

[21] Biswas. 70.

[22] Soka Gakkai.

[23] Biswas. 113.

[24] Gobl. 71.

[25] Litvinsky, 169.

[26] Litvinsky, 147.

[27] Qureshi, 159.

[28] Litvinsky, 147.

[29] Gobl, 254-255.

[30] Qureshi, 158.

[31] Khan, Shaivite Temple at Kashmir Smast.

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