Religion and Superstitions
The Roma cannot be said to have a "religion" of their own. They have usually adopted the faiths of the countries in which they live. Among the Roma can be found Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Protestants, and Muslims. Many prefer to carry out religious rituals in their own homes or in the context of folk observances.
The best known Romani religious festivals are the annual pilgrimages to Saintes Maries de la Mer on the Mediterranean coast of France and Sainte Anne de Beaupre in Quebec, Canada. In Saintes Maries de la Mer, Sara the Black is paid homage to by the Roma on the 24-26 of May. In Quebec, the Roma pay homage to Saint Anne on July 26. These annual religious festivals are also used as social gatherings for the Roma.
Though they have, for practical purposes, adopted the religions of those with whom they have come into contact, formal religion is often supplemented by faith in the supernatural, in omens and curses. This body of superstitions varies among different Roma groups, but it is to some extent a factor in the lives of all of them.
Roma believe in their powers, as exemplified by their use of curses, called amria, and healing rituals. They practice fortune telling only for the benefit of gadje, and as a source of livelihood, but not among themselves. The fortune teller is always a woman, called a drabardi. The concept of fortune telling contains several independent elements that are misleadingly grouped together. One element is foretelling the future, called drabaripé or drabarimos. Another element relates to healing powers, which the Roma do practice among themselves. The healing elements of fortune telling are called "advising." Both elements are based on a belief in the supernatural.
Good luck charms, amulets, and talismans are common among Roma. They are carried to prevent misfortune or heal sickness. The female healer who prescribes these traditional cures or preventatives is called a drabarni or drabengi. Some Roma carry bread in their pockets as protection against bad luck, or bibaxt, and supernatural spirits or ghosts, called muló. Horseshoes are considered good luck by some Roma just as they are by non-Roma.
Since Roma feel that illness is an unnatural condition, called prikaza, there are many supernatural ways in which they believe disease can be prevented or cured. One method of lowering a fever has been to shake a young tree. In this way the fever is transferred from the sick person's body to the tree. Another method to bring down fever has been to drink powdered portions of certain animals, dissolved in spirits, to the accompaniment of a chant. Some beliefs include carrying a mole's foot as a cure for rheumatism, and carrying a hedgehog's foot to prevent a toothache. Any number of herbs, called drab, are used for the prevention or cure of various diseases. Herbalism may be practiced by both sexes. Some of these herbs, called sastarimaskodrabaró, actually have medicinal value in addition to their supernatural qualities.
Most of Roma society relies heavily on distinctions between behavior that is pure, vujo or wuzho, and polluted, or marimé. Marimé has a dual meaning to the Roma. It refers both to a state of pollution or defilement as well as to the sentence of expulsion imposed for violation of purity rules or any behavior disruptive to the Roma community. Pollution and rejection are thus closely associated with one another. Pollution taboos, and their names, vary from group to group and often among smaller Romani units. Nevertheless, Roma define themselves in part by their adherence to these cleanliness rituals. There may be class distinctions among some Roma, based on how strictly individuals or families maintain distinctions between purity and impurity.
The marimé concept applied to personal hygiene means "dirty" or "polluted." Much of it stems from the division of a woman's body into two parts, above the waist and below the waist. A woman is clean from the waist up and "polluted" from the waist down. There is no shame, lashav, connected with the upper part of the body. The lower part of the body is, however, an object of shame, baro lashav, because it is associated with menstruation. The fact that blood flows without injury seems to be the proof of a bodily impurity. This concept of marimé as applied to women is one explanation in many tribes the Roma women wear long skirts and the fact that the bottom of those skirts must not touch a man other than the Roma woman's husband.
Traditionally, a woman in a house must not pass in front of a man, or even between two men. She must go around them in order to avoid "infecting" them. At meals, the men must be served from the rear for the same reason. If a Roma woman is not wearing the traditional long skirt, she must cover her legs with a blanket or coat when sitting.
Many of the traditional laws of hygiene deal with water. For example, Roma must wash only in running water. A shower would be acceptable, but a bath would not be, for the person would be sitting or lying in dirty, stagnant water. Dishes cannot be rinsed in the same sink or basin that is used for washing personal clothing. The kitchen sink is used only for washing dishes, and therefore it cannot ever be used for washing one's hands. In addition, women's clothes and men's clothes cannot be washed together, because of the impurities of the women's bodies.
Certain Roma tribes have set specific and very rigid rules for the drawing of water from a river or stream. The water from the farthest point upstream, therefore the purest, is used for drinking and cooking. Working their way downstream, the water is used for washing dishes and bathing. Further down the stream water is used for washing or nourishing horses. Further down washing clothes is appropriate, and at the farthest point downstream, washing the clothes of pregnant or menstruating women. In order to make certain that there will be no impurities, separate pails are always used for the different uses of water.
Some traditional rules might make sense to the non-Roma. The surfaces of tables used for eating are kept spotless. Handkerchiefs for blowing the nose are frowned upon. They merely preserve the dirt of the nose. For this reason Roma prefer to blow their noses in disposable material. In any case, after blowing the nose or sneezing, one must wash before eating.
To some, the marimé code of pollution may seen unfair to women. However, marimé also gives women great power among Roma, the threat of pollution is so great. Pre-pubescent girls and older women are placed in a different category from other women, because they do not menstruate. This allows them more freedom and they are allowed to socially interact with men with fewer restrictions.
There are remedies or punishments for a person who has become infected, or marimé. Minor offenses, clearly unintentional ones, can be forgiven by those present at the time the offense is committed. More serious ones must be dealt with by the community and, in some cases, by the kris.
The stereotype of the Roma woman with the long, colorful skirt, the heavy earrings, and often a flower in her hair has some basis in fact. Traditionally, a woman's legs must not show. Exposure of the legs is a grave offense, so long full skirts must be worn. It is probable that long skirts were once thought of as protection against sexual advances, but they also cover the lower part of the body, which is considered marimé, or "impure." These skirts are generally of bright colors, often consisting of many layers.
Except for color, a woman does not have a varied wardrobe. Among many tribes, if a woman is married she must display that fact by keeping her head covered by a diklo, or head scarf. Women usually allow their hair to grow long. Their hair may then be braided or rolled into a bun on the back of the head. Roma women usually wear jewelry, not only for its beauty, but for its intrinsic value. Most do not have bank accounts or safe deposit boxes, so they feel most secure carrying their valuables on their own persons. Traditionally, acquired wealth has been converted into jewelry or gold coins called galbi, the latter sometimes worn on clothing as adornments, or woven into the hair, as with the women of the Kalderash nation.
As for men, there is really no characteristic clothing. Since the head is regarded as the body's focal point, many Roma men draw attention to it by wearing large hats and wide mustaches. For festive occasions, they will wear a good suit and show a preference for bright colors. Most of them own one suit at a time and wear it until it is frayed. A brightly colored neck scarf may be worn on special occasions. Generally, however, their clothing is indistinguishable from that of the gadje among whom they live or travel.
Young Roma girls in Rosslau, Germany, 1931
A day will generally begin with very strong black coffee, heavily sweetened with sugar. Coffee is a staple of Roma existence for many tribes, and many cups may be taken in the course of a day. There is usually no lunch, and dinner is served at sunset, or, since the food is generally on the stove all afternoon, whenever anyone is hungry. The basic element of this dinner is a thick, fatty vegetable soup, or stew, with any available vegetables or greens put into it. It is usually made even more hearty by the addition of potatoes, rice, or pasta. Sometimes meat is served, generally broiled or cooked on a spit. Game, such as rabbit and game fowl, are enjoyed when possible. Garlic is a very commonly used seasoning. Some tribes sometimes serve maize cakes instead of bread. Water is the most often served beverage during the course of a meal.
Ceremonial events such as christenings, marriages, and religious festivals are occasions for community activity and sharing. Enormous quantities of food and drink are consumed during these celebrations, and the preparation is long and enthusiastic. A favorite European Roma dish has traditionally been roasted hedgehog, although this delicacy is gradually falling from favor among many Roma. It has a rich and succulent meat with a pork-like flavor, which is also enjoyed by some non-Roma Europeans. Ideally, this animal is flavored with garlic and placed skin and all above burning hot coals or stones. In this way, it cooks in its own juices. When the roasting is completed, the animal's prickles are shaved or picked off and the skin is peeled back. The meat is served, sometimes wrapped in aromatic leaves. Chicken and other fowl can also be cooked this way. On these special occasions beer, wine and other spirits are substituted for water at the meal.
Marimé taboos extend to animals as well, from the edibility of certain types of meat to pet ownership. Romaniya prohibits cruelty to animals and they may only be killed for food. The German Sinti consider eating horse flesh a serious offense, as do other tribes. The exclusion of horse meat has more to do with respect than to marime, the horse has been so important to the Roma's mobility and survival in the past.
Dogs and cats are considered polluted because of their unclean living habits. Roma consider cats particularly unclean because they lick their paws after burying their feces. The critical concern, as with dogs licking themselves, is that the uncleanliness of the external world may defile the purity of the inner self if it is permitted to enter the body through the mouth. Cats are also a sign of impending death to many tribes. If a cat sets foot in a house, trailer, or automobile, a purification ceremony may be required. Dogs are also unclean, but to a lesser extent. Dogs are tolerated outside the house because of their value as watchdogs.
Owls are considered portents of death, just as with many non-Roma groups. In some tribes, the owl's cry is considered very bad luck, or bibaxt. For this reason, owls are avoided as food or pets.
Other minorities want recognition of their cultures and integration into gajikane society without discrimination. But the Roma are suspicious and afraid of being corrupted by gajikane influences. The fear is for their children, that contact with non-Roma will lead to the disintegration of traditionally strong family and community ties. The belief is that this will result in juvenile delinquency. Many Roma also fear that public admission of being Roma in gajikane society will single them out for discrimination and persecution.
Among the Roma there are activists who see the gains made by other minority groups and want to share in these gains. They ask for the respect of the non-Roma world and for equal job opportunities. The first step must be education. It is believed by some authorities that more than 95 percent of the Roma in America are illiterate. This number may be higher in Europe. However, before education is possible, gadje will have to overcome their long hostility toward and misunderstanding of the Roma, and Roma parents will have to overcome their fear of corruption by non-Roma.
Although the Roma have largely adapted to living surrounded by foreign cultures, their social organization fosters the separation of Roma from non-Roma. This separation places Roma at a greater disadvantage than other, less separatist ethnic groups. While other ethnic groups have been denied equal rights in the past, the Roma have tended to stay apart by choice. Many Roma are slowly integrating and participating in the mainstream of European and American culture without compromising their identity. The advent of mass media has made it increasingly difficult for the Roma to maintain a separate cultural identity. Television follows them even if they migrate. The traditional closely knit Romani family provides some measure of immunity from these gadje influences.
Identifying commonalities among all Roma is difficult. The stress on literacy, which varies substantially among different Romani groups, seems to compound the problem. Although illiteracy, according to gajikane standards, may help the Roma preserve their ethnic identity by isolating them, it also handicaps them in modern gajikane society. Illiteracy among many tribes prevents the cultural and intellectual values of the gadje from infiltrating and undermining traditional Roma society, maintaining the Romani sense of dignity and need for autonomy. Gajikane society's illiteracy of the Romani language and ignorance of Romaniya, contribute to the difficulties experienced by Roma and gadje.
Although they need and depend on contacts with their host countries as a source of their livelihood, the Roma do not want to be part of these societies in any sense that would involve compromise of their basic beliefs. If there is any semblance of compromise, it may be in the Roma willingness to adapt to the requirements of their surroundings. Many Roma fear that over time integration could lead to assimilation, and the eventual disappearance of Romaniya.
Fraser, Angus. The Gypsies. Cambridge: Blackwell, 1992.
Hancock, Ian. The Pariah Syndrome: An Account of Gypsy Slavery and Persecution. Ann Arbor: Karoma, 1987.
Greenfield, Howard. Gypsies. New York: Crown Publishers, 1977.
Sutherland, Anne. Gypsies: The Hidden Americans. Reprinted Prospect Heights: Waveland, 1986.