c-AFRASIAN-3.htm

The purpose of this short essay is to establish as a hypothesis that IE and Afrasian are both descended from a common ancestor, which, I term the Proto-Language — from the form into which it developed between 60K and 40K BPE.

This date is based on the estimates of Cavalli-Sforza for the separation of the peoples of Asia and Europe (The Great Human Diasporas, p. 123) from the "main" branch of the people speaking the Proto-Language.

During this phase of development, the Proto-Language was passing out of a ergative-type morphology into an nominative-type morphology (G. A. Klimov).

Afrasian word order is consistently VSO, in which we see a simple transposition of the verb from the earliest PL final position (SOV) to first position.

Nostratic has come to mean a language super-family from which a number of other language families are believed to be descended. This essay attempts only to substantiate the earliest and minimal Nostratic Hypothesis: that Indo-European and Afrasian (more precisely, Hamito-Semitic (Hieroglyphic Egyptian and Semitic) have Nostratic as a common ancestor; and in addition, that Nostratic is descended from the Proto-Language. Since we also maintain that all languages are descended from the Proto-Language, this affirms the major Nostratic Hypothesis since any language is, therefore, more or less distantly related to Nostratic through the Proto-Language.

It is, unfortunately, rather easy to see why the Nostratic Hypothesis — even in its minimal configuration — has not been widely accepted. I am reproducing a random page from the work of Hermann Møller which vividly displays the reasons for the scholarly hesitation: 1) the comparisons, which include devices like "Infix" and irregular and unconvincing correspondences (on the page illustrated, IE k[^]-u- shows up as Semitic S, sh, Z, and D).

Sadly, the work of Linus Brunner shows the same pattern irregular correspondences and implausible mechanisms to enable comparisons.

Although he and I differ somewhat on details, I can recommend the work of Allan R. Bomhard, whose comparisons are mostly regular and whose method is more or less consistent.

For truly interested students of Nostratic, an excellent and relatively inexpensive source of valuable current information

which can be purchased as a hardcover (for $71.00 + shipping) from SIGNUM Desktop Publishing, P. O. Box 151, Charleston, SC 29402 (803)729-8531 (FAX also), or by e-mail.

Although there has been an understandable negative reaction to linking 'race' and language notably because of the racial doctrines of the former National Socialists, responsible scholars have now begun to re-investigate the connections among genetic profiles of populations and culture and language, with the result that the basic Nostratic Hypothesis (and with it, monogenesis) is gaining substantial credibility through the results of research by physical scientists.

The kind of solid data being generated and careful analysis cannot be "quibbled away" by the liberal ideologues who still chase the butterflies of independent language invention and "borrowing frenzy".

In the Table of Correspondence found after the listing of lexical cognates below, the column entitled PROTO-LANGUAGE shows the earliest syllables before vocalic contrasts were replaced by a contrast of glides and no glide (during the Pontic stage).

Similar tables of equivalence can and have been constructed for the Proto-Language, IE and Altaic, Basque, Beng (Southern Mandé), Blackfoot (Algonquian), Hurrian, Japanese, Mon/Hmong, Nama ([Khoi]San), Pama-Nyungan, (Sino-)Tibetan, Sumerian, and Uralic, among others.

It will be seen below that the reconstructed roots of Indo-European and the attested roots of Arabic (and through Arabic, the reconstructed roots of Semitic and Afrasian) are related through a very regular system of phonemic correspondences with understandable semantic shifting.

What will surprise many readers, are the startling similarities in responses to Pontic-Nostratic phonemes displayed by Germanic (IE) and Semitic (AA), which strongly imply a common development period postdating the separation of non-Germanic/Afrasian languages and their subequent dispersion (presumably through the introduction of agriculture).

An excellent online resource for Afrasian is at the TOWER OF BABEL, founded by Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin, and now part of the Evolution of Human Languages project at the Santa Fe Institute.

An important new resource for Nostratic studies is the website Nostratica, instituted by Kirill Babaev, the founder of the Cybalist language discussion group at Yahoo! Groups.

TABLE
OF
PL / IE / AFRASIAN (HAMITO-SEMITIC)
CORRESPONDENCES

with Hieroglyphic Egyptian and Arabic

FOR EXAMPLES FROM PROTO-LANGUAGE, PIE, HIEROGLYPHIC EGYPTIAN AND ARABIC ———
SEE UNDER NUMBER IN LISTINGS BELOW

FOR CITATION FORMS AND MEANINGS FOR AFRASIAN ROOTS FROM O&S ———
(WITH PL AND PIE COGNATES)
SEE IN ALPHABETIZED AND NUMERICALLY ORDERED LIST BELOW.

Alphabetical INDEX of the Proto-Language, Indo-European,
Hieroglyphic Egyptian, and Arabic words discussed in this essay
with entry number (xxx).

FOR FULL DICTIONARY ENTRY ON ROOTS FROM AFRASIAN ———
SEE UNDER O&S ROOT NUMBER (#) IN (Hamito-Semitic Etymological Roots: Orel and Stolbova, 1995),

¿E + HHE	yV + (H)e(:)/V	j(2,4,9,17, 22a-1/b-2,23, 24a/b,26,28, 30b/c,31,32,34a /a-1,40,44, 45,47/a/a-1, 49,51,52,53, 54/a,55,64/a, 65,66,70,71/a/b /c,73,81,83, 85,86,87,90, 91,93b,94,96, 104a,105/a,115, 116,117,118, 121,123,126,128, 129,131,134, 135,138,142, 143,145,147, 150,151,152, 153,154) + j(140/a/b)	y(2,4,9,17, 22a-1/b-2,23, 24a/b,26,28, 30b/c,31,32,34a /a-1,40,44?, 45?,47/a/a-1, 49,51,52,53, 54/a,55,64/a, 65,66,70,71/a/b /c,73?,81,83, 85,86,87,90, 91,93b,94,96, 104a,105/a,115, 116,117,118, 121,123,126,128, 129,131,134, 135,138,142, 143,145,147, 150,151,152, 153,154) + H(140/a/b)	yi(9) (O&S: yi - #2589; ya(13) (for yi) - #2564, 2566; y(i) - #476, 516, 550, 665, 673, 840, 912, 988, 1093, 1102, 1137, 1147, 1148, 1165, 1169, 1173, 1295, 1300, 1338, 1424, 1659, 1752, 1820, 1940, 2036, 2077, 2536, 2542, 2612; ya (for yi) - #1394a; (y)i - #589, 1395; Ø - #620; a(13) (for *î iyi) - #395, 772, 1669, 2084, 2627; i (from ayi) - #1453; e (from ayi) - #1660, 1761; i (from iyi) - #797, 1771, 1977; a (from iyi) - #2083; a (from ayi) - #886, 2357; ya {from yila} - #1350; yu (from yi) - #1914, 2595; u (for *ü uyi) - #984, 987, 1353, 1798; a (from uyi) - #2193; i (from uyi) - #2193; V (for *e[?] from ayi) - #1518; HV (for ħiyi) - #1572; Ø (for iyi) - #611) Øi ( ġa + yi) - #1013 in the meaning 'from under/below': yi (O&S: ¿i (for yi) - #1102) + ħi (O&S: ħi [dotted h] - #1228, 1270; ħ(i) - #1575, 1578, 1798; ħe - #1265; ħV (for ħi) - #1295; HV (for ħe(?)) - #1572)(9)
¿A + HHA	yV / (H)a(:) / V(8) + (H)a(:)/V	j(8,11,12,14/a /b,17,20,21,39, 47/a/a-1,49,53, 61,62,63/a/b, 65,71/a/b/c,74, 89,94,97,98,128, 129,130,132, 146a,152) + j(24a,27/a/b/c /d,43,45,56,67, 69,76,83,101/a /b,108/a,113, 114a,124,127/a, 148,159,160)	¿(8,11,12,14/a /b,17,20,21,39, 47/a/a-1,49,53, 61,62,63/a?/b, 65,71/a/b/c,74, 89,94,97,98,128, 129,130,132, 146a,152) + H(24a,27/a/b/c /d,43,45,56,67, 69,76,83,101/a /b,108/a,113, 114a,124,127/a, 148,159,160)	¿a*(16)* (O&S: ¿a - #1028, 1029, 1030, 1050, 1062, 1079; ¿(a) - #622; ¿e (for ¿a) - #1093; ¿i/¿u (for ¿a) - #1094); ¿V - #1128)(9) + ħa (O&S: ħa; (dotted h) - #1216, 1217, 1224, 1226, 1232, 1241, 1242, 1244, 1247, 1248, 1266. 2455; ħ(a) - #813, 1288, 1784, 1816, 1989, 2006, 2025, 2241, 2269, 2082, 2091, 2103, 2132, 2241, 2295, 2509; u (from awa) - #1288, 1289; ħV (u from awa) - #1296, 1298, 1300, 1303; ħi (for ħa) - #2456; ya (for ħa) - #2569)(9)
¿O + HHO	yV + (H)o(:)/V	h(29,102,110) + h(123,125,141)	¿(29,102,110) + H(123,125,141)	¿u (O&S: ¿u - #1123, 1124; ¿(u) - #303, 456, 874, 900, 912, 916, 960[?], 1556, 1706, 1742, 1993, 2032, 2114, 2115, 2116, 2270, 2501, 2531; ¿o - #1107, 1109; ¿V (for ¿u) - #1833; ¿a (for ¿u) - #2502)(9) + ħu (O&S: ħu (dotted h) - #1283; ħu [emended from ħa] - #1214)(9)

FE + F[H]E	wV + wV:	w(#) + w(87)	w(#) + w(87)	wi (O&S: wi - #2541; w(i) for wi) - #2612; wa (for wi) - #2493)(9) + wi (O&S: wi - #1395; wa (for wi) - #1394)(9)
FA + F[H]A	wV + wV:	w(13/a/b,14/a /b,29,30/a/b/c, 32,35a,36,40, 44,52,54/a,64/a, 69,71a,72,81, 86,90,92,95,97, 109,119,126, 141) + w(22a/a-1/b/b-1/ b-2/b-3/b-4/c/ c-1,27/a/b/c/d, 80,85,93,101b, 118,132,133, 146b,153,158)	w(13/a/b,14/a /b,29,30/a/b/c, 32,35a,36,40?, 44,52,54/a,64/a, 69,71a,72,81, 86,90,92,95,97, 109,119,126, 141) + w(22a/a-1/b/b-1/ b-2/b-3/b-4/c/ c-1,27/a/b/c/d, 80,85,93,101b, 118,132,133, 146b,153,158)	wa (O&S: wa - #594, 666, 1079, 1749, 2487, 2502, 2509, 2527, 2529, 2531; w(a) - #516, 664, 905, 906, 1148, 1173, 1224, 1820, 1847, 1893, 2077, 2101, 2142, 2207, 2375, 2379, 2439, 2595, 2598, 2614; wV - #476, 477, 552, 768; *o ( iwa) - #723, 1344; u(:)[Semitic has û] uwa) - #1488, 1492; Ø (should be u) - #630; u (from a?awa) - #159; u (from awa) - #1382; o (from awa) - #1191; a (from awa) - #1406; u (from uwa) - #1799, 1800, 2132; o (from iwa) - #1958, 2129; u (from iwa) - #902, 2631; ü (from iwa) - #1960i wi (from wayi) - #2542; V (for awa) - #832)(9) + wa (O&S: wa - #813, 814, 1165, 2036, 2103, 2490, 2501, 2519, 2536; w[a] - #364, 1162, 1309, 1559, 1631, 1632, 1833, 2100, 2224, 2314; u(:)[Semitic has û] uwa) - #1283; ü ( iwa) - #842; ü (from uwa[?] - #1050; ü (from uwa[f]i) - #1690; Ø (should be wa) - #836, 837; u (from awa) - #1288, 1289, 1639;); u {from uwa} - #826, 835, 1363, 1368, 1375, 1376, 1380; u (from iwa) - #2003, 2006, 2008; i (from iwa) - #2238; V (u from awa) - #1296, 1298, 1300, 1303; a (from awa) - #1639; a (from uwa) - #1882; wo - #909; wu ( wa) - #1022, 1751)(9)
FO + F[H]O	wV + wV:	w(6)(154) + w(6)(10)	w(154) + w(10)	wu (O&S: wu - #2543, 2548, 2573; wü (for wu) - #2552, 2553)(9) + fu (O&S: fu - #840)(9)

T[?]E + T[H]E	dV + tV	d(#) + d(#)	t(#) + þ (th)(#)	ti (O&S: ti - #2345, 2347, 2405; t(i) - #809, 1289; ta (for ti) - #2362; te (for ti) - #2378; tu (for ti) - #2419)(9) ti (O&S: ča (for či tyi) - #476) + þi (O&S: či - ?)(9)
T[?]A + T[H]A	dV + tV	d(22c-1,24b, 27a,35a,82, 91,109,114/a,116) occ. d + j D(?) + d(38)	t(22c-1,24b, 27a,35a,82, 91,109,114/a,116) + þ (th)(38)	ta (O&S: ta - #1989, 2342, 2343, 2350, 2354, 2357, 2364, 2366, 2372, 2373, 2375, 2379; t(a) - #1204, 1751, 1762; ti (for ta) - #2390)(9) + þa (O&S: ča - ?; č(a) - #1769)(9)
T[?]O + T[H]O	dV / dwV(10) + tV / twV(10)	t(29,36, 37a,60,61, 73,81,131) + t(112,113)	T[dot-t](29,36, 37a?,60,61, 73,81,131); rarely t(#) + S[dot-s](112,113)	ţu (O&S: ču - ?; ča - #471 [Semitic ču]; č(u) - #1013, 1266, 1382, 1453, 1532, 1669, 1703, 1985; čo - #477, 489)(9) ţu (O&S: tu - #2413; t(u) - #810, 836, 837)(9) ţu (O&S: ţu - #2460; ţ(u) - #848, 1380, 1395, 3552; ţV - #1393; ţa (for ţu) - #2439, 2455, 2456. 2457, 2458, 2459, 2460, 2463)(9) + şu (O&S: çu - ?; ç(u) - #1022, 1050, 1197 [emended], 1318, 1319, 1530, 1531, 1980, 2552)(9)

K[?]E + K[H]E	g[^]V(10) + k[^]V(10)	k(24a/b,48,155, 156,160) + k(50)	k(24a/b,48,155, 156,160) + kh(50)	ki (O&S: ki - #1450; ke (for ki) - #1444; ka (for ki) - #1418, 1419, 1420, 1424; k(i) - #2094, 2357)(9) + xi (O&S: xi - #1347, 1930; xa (for xi) - #1323, 1324, 1327, 1334, 1336, 1900; xV (for xi) - #1387)(9)
K[?]A + K[H]A	gV + kV	k(23) occ. k + j H(?) + k(57/a)	k(23) + kh(57/a)	ka (O&S: ka - #1295, 1400, 1434; ki (from ayi) - #1453; kV (*e [?] from ayi) - #1518; k(a) - #1790, 2378)(9) + xa (O&S: xa - #1306, 1318, 1319, 1337, 1338, 1339, 1344; x(a) [hook-h] - #630, 2238; xi {from ayi} - #1350; xV - #1394a)(9)
K[?]O + K[H]O	gV + kV	T(90) + T(58,158)	k(90) + kh(58,158)	ku (O&S: ku - #1501; ku (from uwa) - #1492; k(u) - #1247, 1645, 2099, 2303; ko (for ku) - #1474, 1480, 1481, 1482, 2008; ka (from uwa) - #1406; ka (for ku) - #1416)(9) ku (O&S:q(u) (from *ku[?]) - #1799, 1800) + xu (O&S: xu {hook-h} {from uwa} - #1363, 1368, 1375, 1376, 1380; x[u] - #23, 803; xo {for xu} - #1352, 1353, 1901; xV (for xu) - #1389 ___q(u) - #814)(9)

K[?]XE + KX[H]E	g[^]hV(10) + k[^][h]e(:)(10)	H(11,30/a/b/c, 32,93/a/b) + H(37/a,138)	j(11,30/a/b/c, 32,93/a/b) + gh(37/a,138)	gi [from g?] (O&S: gi - #892, 930, 931, 1896; g[i] - #294, 2639; ge - #917; ga (for gi) - #620, 874, 858, 885, 900, 901, 902, 906; ga (for giha) - #909; gV (for gi) - #2557)(9) + γi [from gh] (O&S: ġi - ?)(9)
K[?]XA + KX[H]A	g(h)V(4) + k[h]a(:)	H(19a,27d,29) + H(38,63a,134, 135,139)	j(19a,27d,29) + gh(38,63a,134, 135,139)	ga [from g?] (O&S: ga - #886, 897; g(a) - #1270, 1637, 1704, 1977, 2129)(9) + γa [from gh] (O&S: ġa - #1309, 1310, 1314; ġi ( ġa + yi) - #1013)(9)
K[?]XO + KX[H]O	ghV occ. final gh + y ǧ + k[h]o(:)	x(47a-1,149) + x(1,136, 137,146b)	j(47a-1,149) + gh(1,136, 137,146b)	gu [from g?] (O&S: gu - #985, 988; gu (should be gü) - #984, 987; g(u) - #832, 1107, 1192; go (for gu) - #958, 960; gi (for gu) - #1767; ge (for gu) - #916)(9) gu (O&S: q.o (for q.u) - #2069; q.e (for q.u) - #2065; q.a (for q.u) - #2061 + γu [from gh] (O&S: ġu - #1020; ġ(u) - #1639; ġo - #1015; ġū (for ġuha)- #1024; ġa (for ġu) - #1004, 1006, 1007, 1008)(9) γu (O&S: ķ(u) - #1391) γu (O&S:qa (for qu) - #2032, 2036; qo (for qu) - #2043, 2044; qu - #2050; q(u) - #1988)

(1)K[H]XO-N[H]A^a ("mollusc=sea-shell-vibrate^b"), E: xn, ‘speech, utterance, play music, clap hand'; A: ghulghul-atun, ‘confused clamors'; (IE: 6. *kel- {for **khel-}, ‘call, cry, make noise, (re)sounds'); RATIONALE: the basal idea is the ‘roar of the sea' heard when a sea-shell is put to the ear = "undefined sound".

(2)RE-?A-¿E ("scratch-pointed=groove+voice=speak"), E: (**3jj); A: ra?â (r-?-y), ‘see, think something, hold an opinion of'; (IE: *re:i- (*reH₄ey-), 'reckon', listed [incorrectly] under 1. *ar-, ‘fit [into]'); RATIONALE: the ‘scratches' are symbolic of the process of a calculation, which is then verbally expressed.

(3)T[H]SO-N[H]A ("{move-in-a }circle-(ingressive: ‘start-to')"), E: 'nn, ‘turn/bring/come back' [LateE: 'n, ‘again']; A: Zalla, ‘remain, last, continue doing'; (IE: 3. stel- {for s-mobile+**thel-; cf. OInd sthálati, ‘stands'}, ‘standing, unmoving'); RATIONALE: the two major semantic variations are: "moving in small circle(s)" = "minimal repetitive movement in a circumscribed place" = "remain, stand, continue", and "moving in a large circle" = "return".

(4)?E-¿E-RA ("tooth-(like)=pointed-tree" = "pointed stick"); E: j3.t {for **jj3 + .t [Gardiner :1973 R12, ‘standard for carrying religious symbols' = **jj3]}, ‘standard for cult objects'; A: ?airun (?-y-r), ‘penis'; (IE: eir- (*H₄eyer-) [r-extension of 4. ei-], ‘pole'; RATIONALE: sexual parts are often familiarly named; for an analogous semantic development, cf. Sumerian [Jaritz 1967] #89, which pictures a ‘penis', and reads ir-3, with [Jaritz 1967] #112, which pictures a ‘forked stick', means ‘support', and reads iri-8 .

(5)?E-S[H]A ("that-yonder+immobile"); E: in jsb.t {for **jz, ‘**sit' + b(w).t, ‘place'}, ‘throne'; z.t {for **jzt; [correct reading for Gardiner : 1973 Q1, ‘seat' = **jz + t; proved by Jz.t, ‘Isis']}, ‘seat, throne'; A: ?issun, ‘foundation, principle, basis'; IE: e/e:s- (*H₄es-), ‘sit'; RATIONALE: the t of Egyptian **jzt is not the feminine/collective ending but a semantic element (T[?]O{-¿E}, ‘lump') corresponding to the d(y) of IE (**e)sodyo-m, ‘seat', listed under sed- {for **esed-}, ‘sit'; the d(i) of Sumerian as-di [Jaritz 1967 : Comb. 5], ‘throne' (from which one may analyze [Jaritz 1967 : #1, as/z-3, ‘*sit' + #117, di-3, ‘*pillow{?}' ); and the t of Arabic ?istun, ‘buttock'.

(6)S[H]A-HE-RE ("immobile+come-up-from=awaken+apply=stay motionlessly awake"); E: z3(w) {for **zj3(w); [correct reading for Gardiner : 1973 A47, 'shepherd seated and wrapped in mantle, holding a stick with appendage`; and V17-18 ‘rolled up herdsman's shelter of papyrus'] , ‘protect'; A: sahira, ‘keep watch'; (IE: *2. ser- {for **se:r(w)-; cf. Greek Hé:ra, ‘protectress'} (*seH₄er-), ‘carefully give attention, protect, preserve'); RATIONALE: The idea here is of passive protection by careful attention.

(7)?E-S[H]A-RE ("thorn-immobile-apply=pierce-and-fix"); E: z3 {for **jz3; [correct reading for Gardiner : 1973 V16, 'looped cord serving as hobble for cattle'] , ‘cattle-hobble, byre'; A: ?asara, ‘tie up'; (IE: *4. ser- {for **H₄eser-}, ‘line up together, tie'); RATIONALE: the original idea of 'immobilizing (by tying up)' can further be seen in Egyptian z3j {for **jz3j}, 'linger, await'; see also 88 below.

(8)¿A-R[H]A-QE ("eye-color-juice=milk[y-white]"); E: j3q.t, ‘leeks'; A: ¿araqun, ‘milk'; ¿irqun, ‘fresh milk'; ¿arîqun, ‘noble (white)'; (IE: *ar(e)-g^- {for **H₂ereng^-}, ‘shining, whitish'); RATIONALE: Another IE term for ‘white', *1. bhel-, means simply ‘prominent' or ‘pale (by comparison)'. The familiar base of English ‘white' is *2. k^e/e:u- {a simplification of **k^^we:u-- (PL X[H]E-F[H]A], ‘radiating spines'), ‘spikey (with light and heat)'; and means rather ‘glowing strongly' than ‘white' (seen in Egyptian Sw, ‘sun, sunlight'; and in Arabic shawâ [sh-w-y], ‘roast [meat]'. In Egypt, ‘leeks' were appropriately: ‘the milky-white ones'. It is interesting to note Greek árgemon, ‘white of the eye'.

(9)¿E-?A ("voice-(stative)=spoken=word"); E: j {for **jj [Gardiner :1973 A26, ‘man with one arm raised in invocation' = **jj]}, ‘say, utterance'; A: ya?ya?a, ‘show kindness, flatter, call out'; IE ya:- {for **yeH₂-}, ‘be excited, punish, revenge, speak excitedly, swear, praise'; RATIONALE: Words built on reflexes on ¿E(-?A) for ‘speak' with various extensions are extremely common in the languages of the world: e.g. Sumerian i, ‘speech'; i-5, ‘speak'.

(10)F[H]O-N[H]A ("wolf-vibrate=howl"); E: **wn (but cf. Egyptian wnS, ‘jackal', with IE *wLk^wo-s, ‘wolf' [PL F[H]O-N[H]A-X[H]A {"howl-croak=bark"}]); A: in walwala, ‘wail, shriek, howl (like a wolf)'; IE *ul-, ‘howl'; RATIONALE: The extremely small number of words reconstructed with initial u- in Indo-European makes it very likely that *ul- is a very early reduction from **we:l-, the outcome predicted here from F[H]O-N[H]A.

(11)¿A-NA-K[?]XE ("eye-one-empty(-out)=blank-eyed=stare while choking"); E: jnH, ‘surround, enclose, rim [a vessel with gold] (this word has Gardiner : 1973 V1 ‘coil of rope' as a determinative)'; A: ¿anaja, ‘tie with a rope, stop a beast by pulling up the rein'; ¿anjûj-un, ‘long-necked (camels)'; (IE: *ang^h- {**H₂en(e)g^h-}, ‘narrow, restrict movement, tie up'; ang^hú-s, ‘neck'; cf. also Greek agkhóne:, ‘cord'); RATIONALE: Early speakers seem to always have preferred concrete, visual images to express less obvious states or conditions.

(12)¿A-NA-Q[H]A ("eye-one-hump=eye-bulge=be-squeezed"); E: jnq, ‘embrace'; A: ¿ânaqa {¿-n-q}, ‘embrace'; (IE: *1. ank- {for **H₂enenk- [cf. Greek anágke:, ‘necessity, compulsion']}, ‘compulsion, necessity'); RATIONALE: Again, early speakers utilized the concrete image, visual image to express less obvious states or conditions.

(13)FA-RE ("flower-fingernail=bud"); E: **w3; A: **wara; IE: we can find this basal form only in IE: *2. wer-, ‘raised place, *bud {cf. Latin varus, ‘bud(let)'}'; however, it occurs in a number of extensions in the languages of interest:

(13a)FA-RE+QO ("bud+ball=blossom"); E: w3g, ‘Wag-festival = May Day, festival of first blossoms of spring (?)'; A: waraqa, ‘blossom'; (IE: *wreng-, ‘supple'); RATIONALE: Because of the ambiguity resulting from vowel-leveling and finally glide-elimination among originally semantically distinct forms, we will often find that elements have been added to originally CVCV-forms that, if the forms had retained their semantic integrity through differential phoneme reflexes, would have been semantically redundant.


(13b)FA-RE+T[?]SE ("blossom+release=grow"); E: w3D, ‘papyrus-plant'; w3DD.t, ‘vegetation' (the Egyptian sign for w3D is Gardiner : 1973 M13 ‘stem of papyrus', which is also written with a variation consisting of a small "V" at the bottom of the papyrus-stem, suggesting the idea of ‘growing out of'); A: warada, ‘blossom (tree)'; (IE: *werdh-, ‘grow, climb, tall'); RATIONALE: It will not be surprising that a form meaning ‘grow' is also associated with the idea of ‘green'; and Egyptian w3D specifically has this meaning, in addition to ‘(make to) flourish'; though in Arabic, ward-un, ‘rose (=the blossom)' has influenced this root to be used for ‘red', another root, warasa, ‘become green', preserves the secondary meaning of *wara- (but cf. also ?aurasa, ‘put forth leaves'), which, interestingly, in Egyptian as w3s, has preserved the primary meaning of ‘flourish'. Latin preserved a related reflex with vire:re, ‘be green', with analogous development to Egyptian w3D: ‘be vigorous, healthy, fresh, youthful'.

(14)?E-RE-?A/¿A(-FA) ("thorn-scratch-(stative)/(perfective)=loosened-((agentive))"); (E: **j3j(w); possibly this is the root-form of 3w {for **j3jw[?]}, ‘long of space and time (‘loosened[?]')'; A: **?ara?/¿a(w); (IE: ar(6)(w)- {**H₄ereH₂(ew)-}, ‘plough'); *5. er(6)- (or *ereu-; cf. Lithuanian yrù, ‘dissolve, separate'; ), ‘loose, dispersed, protruding, part, undo'); RATIONALE: This reconstruction is substantiated by IE*2. ereu-, ‘rip open'; this is also quite possibly the form involved in IE er-w-, ‘earth (loose-things=soil)'. The variation in the initial vowel quality in IE is probably due to variable effects of the following H_w. The existence of a base, A: **?ara(?/¿a), is substantiated by (14a) and (14b)

(14a)?E-RE-?A/¿A(-FA)-T[?]SO ("loosened(+agentive)+tool=plough"); E: **j3j(w)'; A: ?arD-un, ‘earth, soil=ploughed earth' {from **?-r(-?/¿)-D; on the basis of the IE forms, it appears that Arabic has suppressed the medial ?/¿ to achieve a triliteral root, though, of course, it is possible that a less complex form **?ara was used in the compound}; (IE: *reudh- {**(H₄e)re(H₂)udh-}, ‘clear (land)'; in *ar(6)dhlo-m-, ‘plough'); RATIONALE: PL T[?]SO, ‘tool', occurs as a component of compounds in Egyptian as ', in Arabic as D; and as the primary component of IE -dhlo/la: and -dhro/ra:, recognized IE (European) formers of tool-names.


(14b)?E-RE-?A/¿A(-FA)-S[H]O ("loosened(+agentive)+follow=plough"); E: j3s {for **j3j(w)s}, ‘bald (in the general sense of ‘cleared'[?])'; A: ?arasa, ‘practice agriculture, be a tiller/husbandman' {from **?-r(-?/¿)-s; on the basis of the IE forms above, it appears that Arabic has suppressed the medial ?/¿ to achieve a triliteral root, though, of course, it is possible that a less complex form **?ara was used in the compound}; (IE: *1. eres- {H₂eres-}, ‘stick (into)'); RATIONALE: PL S[H]O, ‘follow', is a natural extension for a word meaning ‘plough'.

(15)?E-RA-?A ("point-tall-(stative)=very tall"); E: j3j, 'adore'; A: **?ara?a; (IE: *er6- (listed under *3. er-) {**H₄ereH₂-}, ‘heighten, raising, tall-grown'); RATIONALE: It is more than possible that this root is found in E j3.t, ‘standard, mound, (bureaucratic) office'.

(15a)?E-RA-?A-T[?]SO ("very-tall+arm=very-tall-branch"); E **j3j'; A: ?araDa, ‘bring forth herbs abundantly' {on the basis of the IE forms, it appears that Arabic has suppressed the medial ? to achieve a triliteral root, though, of course, it is possible that a less complex form **?ara was used in the compound}; (IE: *er6dh- (listed under *er6-), ‘encourage, wake'; er(6)dh- {both **H₄ereH₂dh-}, ‘high, grow'); RATIONALE: Here again we see a preference for a "concrete" image to express a "verbal" idea..

(16)P[H]A-R[H]A ("flat=wing+fly"); E: p3, ‘fly, fly up'; A: farra, ‘fly, escape'; (IE: *2. B. per-, ‘fly'); RATIONALE: A variant of IE *per-, *per6-, probably correlates with the meaning of ‘surpass' in some derivatives, and represents PL P[H]A-R[H]A-¿A, also seen in A fara¿a, ‘surpass'. In the absence of any evidence to the contrary, I am supposing that the geminated rr of farra is simply a convenient way to create a triliteral root from a biliteral basis.

(17)¿A-R[H]O-¿E ("many-spring-like=high"); E: jrj, ‘create, beget, make, construct, appoint, cultivate, marshall, inflict (wound)'; A ¿allâ {¿-l-y}, ‘raise, elevate'; (IE: **alei- {H₂eley--} (listed under *2. al- {H₂el--}, ‘grow, make grow, nourish'); RATIONALE: Egyptian ‘inflict (wound)' is probably related to Arabic ?alla, ‘strike with a spear' (PL ?E-R[H]O ("sharp-rise=prod"), and related to some of the derivatives from IE *6. el- {H₄el-}, meaning ‘drive' and possibly ‘goad' and ‘cultivate (use a dibble-stick[?])'.

(18)P[?]FE-HE-R[H]A ("grooved-come-up-from=sap-color=shine"); E: b3 {for **bj3; cf. Old Coptic bai, ‘lord of spirits'}, ‘soul (shining one)'; A bahara, ‘shine'; (IE: *bher- {bheH₄er-}, ‘gleaming, light brown'); RATIONALE: The expected IE long vowel (**bhe:r-) does show up transposed in derived forms: bhre:g^-, ‘gleam, white', and bhre:k^-, ‘gleam'; there were many terms for ‘shine' in the PL: this one probably has the nuance of ‘glisten'.

(18a)P[?]FE-HE-R[H]A-Q[H]E ("shine-wriggle=lightning-flash"); E: b3q {**bj3q}, ‘bright, be dazzled'; A: baraqa, ‘lighten (sky), flash (lightning)'; {on the basis of the IE forms, it appears that Arabic has suppressed the medial h to achieve a triliteral root}; (IE: bher6k^-/*bhre:k^- {for **bheH₄erenk^-), ‘gleam, *lightning-flash {cf. MHG brehen, ‘illuminate suddenly and strongly'}'); RATIONALE: The idea of a ‘clear' shine is appropriate for lightning.


(18b)P[?]FE-HE-R[H]A-QE ("shine-juice=vegetable-oil/tree-sap"); E: b3q, ‘moringa peregrina tree (which resembles the willow), moringa-oil, clear, oily'; A: baraqa, ‘gleam (be oily?)'; {on the basis of the IE forms, it appears that Arabic has suppressed the medial h to achieve a triliteral root}; (IE: *bher6g^-/*bhre:g^- {for **bheH₄ereng^-), ‘gleam, white, birch'); RATIONALE: The identity of the IE terms for ‘gleam' and ‘birch' are explicated when we consider that birch was economically important for its sap (QE). That a popular oil in Egypt was called by the same term (birch-sap=moringa-oil), strongly suggest the hypothesis maintained here that Egyptian derives from a language (Nostratic, in its Pontic phase) which developed in the Northern temperate zone, where birch are distributed. This is another example of ambiguity resulting from vowel-leveling and finally glide-elimination among originally semantically distinct forms, necessitating additional elements to originally CVCVC(V)-forms that, if the forms had retained their semantic integrity through differential phoneme reflexes, would have been semantically redundant.

(19)P[H]FO-N[H]A ("feed-on-(ingressive)")=nibble-at=shape-by-chipping=put a cutting edge on"); E: bn(bn), ‘stone with a beveled, pyramidal top'; A: falla, ‘notch (a sword) {in view of falaja, ‘split asunder', falaHa, ‘cleave' (cf. IE **p[h]le:/6-, ‘split off, rip off'), faladha, ‘cut a slice' (cf. IE **sp(h)elt(h)-, ‘split'), fala¿a, ‘split' (cf. IE **(s)p[h]al- {**pheleH₂-}, ‘split'), falaqa, ‘split', falasa, ‘be destitute' (cf. E pns, ‘cut off, pull out'; IE **p[h]las-, ‘split off'), falâ [f-l-y], ‘strike with a sword' (cf. IE **(s)p[h]lei-, ‘split, split off, splice') — one can scarcely doubt that the meaning ‘notch/shave' resides in the base fala}; (IE: *1. (s)p(h)el-, ‘split, split off, splinter off, rip off'); RATIONALE: Here we see a technological process named by a simpler, more familiar activity, which is so basic and early that IE and A have many extensions in common.

(19a)P[H]FO-N[H]A-K[?]XA ("put a cutting edge on-hang=attached shaving/splinter"); E: bHn, ‘cut off' (if for **bnH[?]); A: falaja, ‘split asunder'; (IE: *(s)p(h)elg- {for **p[h]elgh-}, ‘split, splinter'); RATIONALE: Final IE gh from PL K[?]XA appears as final g in IE.

(20)P[H]A-¿A-N[H]A ("flat-[eye-]socket=full-(ingressive)=start to fill [to the brim]"); E: **pjn; A: fa¿ala, ‘do, act, perform' (the meaning of ‘fill' for the element fa¿ can be seen in fa¿ama, ‘fill a vessel to the brim; the idea here is activity with the object of completion; (IE: *1. pel-/pel6-/ple:- {**peH₂el-}, ‘pour, flow, pour on, fill, fill up'); RATIONALE: We can again see the familiar pattern [from (18a) and (18b) and (19), which follows] that, in IE, the effect of the pharyngal ( H₂ / : ) is metathesized to the following syllable.

(21)P[?]FA-¿A-N[H]A ("be prominent-(perfective)=(ingressive)=start to be erect"); E: bnn {for **bjn[n]}, ‘beget, become erect, overflow; A: ba¿ala, ‘to marry (certify as a sexual consort by becoming erect[?])'; (IE: *3. bhel-/bhle:- {**bheH₂el-}, ‘blow up, swell up, well up, be full of, *become erect (cf. Greek phallós, ‘[erect] penis')'); RATIONALE: A mate for the ancients, a consort, was not so much a helpmate as a coital partner. I have put the second n of bnn in brackets because I believe that, at least, occasionally, nn was an irregular method of notating jn.For another interpretation, see item 98.

(22a)HA-F[H]A ("winds-(plural)=blow"); E: **jw; A: **hawa; (IE: *10. aw(e)- {**H₂ew-}, ‘blow, breathe'); RATIONALE: This simplest form is found only in IE. However, in the sense of ‘exhaling', this is probably the ultimate origin of A huwa, ‘he' (cf. A hûn-un {**h-w-n}, ‘creature (‘**breathing')'; and IE *4. au-, ‘that (one)'.

(22a-1)HA-F[H]A-¿E ("blow-like=windy"); E: **jwj; A: hawâ {h-w-y}, ‘blow'; (IE: awe:(i)- {**H₂ewey-}, listed under *10. aw(e)-, ‘blow, breathe'); RATIONALE: This was originally an ‘adjective'-form.

(22b)HA-F[H]A ("breath-(imperfective)=pant[ing for]"); E: **jw; A: **hawa; (IE: *7. aw- {**H₂ew-}, ‘like, desire, favor, help'; RATIONALE: This simplest form is found only in IE.

(22b-1)HA-F[H]A-?A ("pant[ing-for]-(stative)=state of pant[ing-for]"); E: **jwj; A: in hâ?a {h-w-?}, ‘think well of'; (IE: *awe:- {**H₂eweH₂-}, listed under *7. aw-, ‘like, desire, favor, help'); RATIONALE: This formant may be connected with vowel lengthening (vríddhi) in IE languages like Old Indian.


(22b-2)HA-F[H]A-¿E ("pant[ing-for]-like=pant[ing for]"); E: **jwj; A: hawiya {h-w-y}, ‘love, desire'; (IE: awe:i- {**H₂ewey-}, listed under *7. aw-, ‘like, desire, favor, help'); RATIONALE: This form is adjectival.IE.


(22b-3)HA-F[H]A-S[H]A ("pant[ing for]-satisfied=state-of-having-panted-for"); E: **jwz; A: tahauwasa, desire earnestly {h-w-s}, ‘love, desire'; (IE: awos- {**H₂ewes-}, ‘help (benevolence)', listed under *7. aw-, ‘like, desire, favor, help'); RATIONALE: This is an unrecognized formant of great importance in analyzing IE s-stems.


(22b-4)HA-F[H]A-T[?]SE ("pant[ing for]-release=show-happiness [as a result of goodwill]"); E: **jwD; A: hâwada {h-w-d}, ‘feel sympathy for'; (IE: awedh- {**H₂ewedh-} in Latin aude:re, ‘dare (be desirous of)', listed under *7. aw-, ‘like, desire, favor, help'); RATIONALE: This is an important "verbal" formant.

(22c)HA-F[H]A ("breath-(plural)=[expend]breaths"); E: jw, ‘lament, cry out'; A: **hawa; (IE: *6. aw- {**H₂ew-}, ‘speak'; RATIONALE: This simplest form is found only in IE.

(22c-1)HA-F[H]A-T[?]A ("breaths-give=speak-loudly"); E: **jwd; A: hauwata {h-w-t}, ‘call for'; (IE: *awed- {**H₂ewed-}, listed under *6. aw-, ‘speak'; RATIONALE: Examples like Old Indian vádati, ‘let the voice resound, orate', show the special speech nuance of HA-F[H]A.

(23)K[?]A-¿E-¿E ("jaw-like=moving-up-and-down+voice=warble"); E: kj {for **kjj}, "cry out"; possibly kjj, 'monkey (if 'screamer')'; A: kayâ {k-y-y), ‘shy from (shriek[?])'; (IE: *gi:-, listed under ge:(i)- {**geyei-}, ‘sing, call, scream'; RATIONALE: The element K[?]A is also the intial element in IE ga:u-, 'rejoice', and g^a:/ar-, 'call, cry'.

(24a)K[?]E-¿E-HHA ("split-open+-like=penetrating-by-forcing-open-(reflexive)"); E: **kjj; A: kayaHa, ‘penetrate into a thing (intransitive)'; (IE: *g^e:i- {**g^eyeH₂-}, ‘sprout, split into two, bloom'; RATIONALE: This element suggests intransitive/reflexive IE verbal root forms in o.

(24b)K[?]E-¿E-T[?]A ("split-open+-give=poke"); E: **kjd; A: kayata, ‘cram, pack'; (IE: *geid- {**g^eyed-}, ‘stick, tickle'; RATIONALE: There are many triconsonantal compounds with T[?]A, ‘give', as the second element.

(25)HO-R[H]E ("rest-fall=fall-down-on"); E: h3(j), ‘come down, fall, drip'; A: harra, ‘pour out, fall off'; cf. also taharrâ {h-r-y}, ‘be worn out (clothes), be rotten (fruit) (‘falling off/apart{?}')'; (IE: *or(**ei)- {**H₃er(ey)-}, listed under 3. er-, ‘movement to below, *fall {cf. Greek neortós, ‘newborn'}'); RATIONALE: The entry under IE 3. er- can be seen to encompass two very different ideas {cf. (15) above}.

(26)?E-N[H]A-¿E ("yonder-vibrate=move(-rapidly)-there+like=moving(-rapidly)-there"); E: jnj, ‘bring, remove, attain, use, bring about [hurry{?}]'; A: ?ilâ {?-l-y}, ‘to' {derived from ?alla, ‘hurry [to]'; for this nuance, cf. OHG îl(j)a-n, ‘hurry'}; IE: **elei- {**H₄eley--; [cf. Greek iállo:, ‘send, throw']}'; cf. also Irish le, ‘toward'), listed under *6. el- {H₄el--, ‘drive, set into motion [to], move one's self [to], go'); RATIONALE: In contrast to IE 1. ei-, 'go', el- seems to add the notion of rapidity.

(27)HHA-F[H]A ("water-(plural)=waters"); E: jw, ‘river'; A: **Hawa; in Hawiya, 'be or become dark green [HHA-F[H]A-¿E, "waters-like"]'; (IE: *9. aw(e)- {**H₃ew-}, 'sprinkle, moisten, flow'); RATIONALE: In its simplest form, this root may be attested only in MHG Au, 'wet meadow' (if Au is not a reduction from Aue [PL HHA-F[H]A-¿E, 'watery, wet']); and the attested E jw, 'river, stream', is not a late reduction of jwr (cf. IE *awer-, 'river' {PL HHA-F[H]A-RO ("waters-(augmentative)=great-water")}).

(27a)HHA-F[H]A-T[?]A ("waters-give=wet"); E: **jwd; A: Hût-un {H-w-t}, ‘fish (wet-one)'; (IE: *awed- {**H₂ewed-}, listed under *9. aw(e)-), ‘sprinkle, moisten, flow'); RATIONALE: IE udro-s is ‘marine animal, otter', and can be analyzed as *awed- + -*ro, an augmentative = ‘very wet'.


(27b)HHA-F[H]A-R[H]A ("waters-color=white/brown"); E: **jw3; A: ?aHwarîyun {H-w-r}, ‘white'; (IE: *awer- {**H₂ewer-}, listed under *9. aw(e)-), ‘*brown [cf. OIrish odar, ‘brown']'); RATIONALE: IE udro-s is ‘marine animal, otter', and can be analyzed as *awed- + -*ro, an augmentative = ‘very wet'.


(27c)HHA-F[H]A-R[H]E ("waters-fall=dripping=water-buffalo"); E: jw3, ‘ox'; A: Hawar-un, 'ox'; (IE: *awer- {**H₂ewer-}, listed under *9. aw(e)-), ‘rain lightly, bedewed, aurochs'); RATIONALE: This term reasonably applied to ‘water-buffalo' specifically.


(27d)HHA-F[H]A-K[?]XA ("waters-hang=innundate"); E: jwH, ‘moisten, water (field), inundate'; A: **H-w-j; (IE: *aweg- {**H₂ewegh-}, ‘multiply, increase'); RATIONALE: Mankind has always lived in close proximity to rivers whenever possible; and the seasonal flooding of waterways would have been an important analog for the idea of ‘increase'. Interestingly, ‘waters' is the usual form although a base of ‘water' in PL HHA-P[?]E, "water+pour-out", lies behind IE ab-, ‘water, river (creek[?])', A HabHaba, ‘flow scantily (water)' and Habab-un, ‘water-bubble, drop of dew' (cf. also Sum ab, ‘ocean[?]'). See (36) below.

(28)P[H]A-R[H]O(-¿E) ("over-spring[-like]=escap(e)[ing]"); E: pr(j), ‘go/come out, escape, burst forth, be issued (supplies)' ; A: falla, ‘escape, run away (dialectal)'; (IE: **peley- {cf. Greek pállo:-, ‘jump (medial)'}, listed under *pel- , ‘pour, flow, heap up, fill, fill up, swim, make to flow, fly, flap, quiver, swing, (make to) tremble, *run away {cf. OIcl felmta, ‘be fearful'}'); RATIONALE: The English word ‘flee' is supposedly dervived from IE pleu-, which I would derive from this root. The hieroglyph for E pr, is a long, horizontal rectangle with a short break at the middle of its lower line; supposedly, it depicts a ‘house' since that is its meaning. However, this is quite improbable since the Egyptians had no compunctions about depicting other buildings from a frontal view to show the element of height. The hieroglyph rather depicts a wall (or moat) around a courtyard with a break in the wall for entrance and exit. Pokorny reconstructs p_eli-s, ‘castle(-wall), *fortress', and it is highly probable that E prj, ‘house, palace', corresponds to it. I would suggest that the basic meaning is: ‘place of escape, refuge'. It is also interesting to note that peli- is an example of a word for which OInd has r for IE l; and I would further suggest that this irregular correspondence is due to a differential treatment of Pontic-Nostratic r^hwa from PL R[H]O.

(29)¿O-T[?]O-FA- ("hold-put-together=permanent-putting-together"); E: **htw; A: ¿aTâ {¿-T-w}, ‘give'; (IE: *d6-u- {**H₃edew-}, ‘give', listed under do:-; RATIONALE: The idea seems to be a ‘piling of gifts', a sort of potlatch.

(30)K[?]XE-FA- ("empty-out-(imperfective)=emptying-out"); E: Hw, ‘rain'; A: jauw-un, ‘atmosphere, interior (=emptiness)'; (IE: *g^heu--, ‘pour out'); RATIONALE: Here, the nuance is ‘being void'.

(30a)K[?]XE-FA-?A ("emptying-out-(stative)=empty"); E: Hw {for **Hwj}, ‘lack, be without'; A: jiwâ?-un, ‘atmospheres'[?]; (IE: *g^he:u-- {**g^h(e)weH₂-}, ‘yawn, gape'); *ghawo-, ‘false, untruthful [empty]'; RATIONALE: The a-vocalism of *ghawo- suggests a connection with (30a) rather than (30).


(30b)K[?]XE-FA-¿E- ("emptying-out-like=emptying-out"); E: in Hwj, ‘throw [out]'; A: **j-w-y; (IE: in *g^hewey-a:, ‘ditch, cave'); RATIONALE: This is a transitive nuance of ‘making void, excavating'.

(30c)K[?]XE-FA-¿E ("emptying-out-like=emptying-out₂"); E: in Hw(j).t, ‘filth'; in Hw3 {**Hwj-3; cf. IE gwor-gw(or)- {**gheweyer-[?]}, ‘filth, manure'}, ‘foul, offensive'; LateE Hwjjr (Coptic hoeire), ‘dung, filth' {+-RO, i.e. ‘very filthy'}; A: jawiya, ‘stink'; (IE: in *gwo:-u- (**g^hewey-u-, ‘filth, manure'; in *gwei-d(h)- {**g^hewey-edh-}, ‘mud, semi-liquid filth'); RATIONALE: Obviously, this is simply a reflexive nuance of (30b).

(31)K[?]XA-¿E-?A ("hang-like=suspend+(stative)=suspended"); E: in Hjj, ‘flood, rise up, ascend, rear (animals)'; A: **j-y-?}; (IE: *g^hiya:-, listed under *2. g^he:(i)- {**gheyeH₂}, ‘yawn, gape' ); RATIONALE: Metaphorical.

(32)K[?]XE-¿E-?A ("empty-like=pour+(stative)=poured"); E: in Hjj, ‘rain'; A: jâ?a {j-y-?}, ‘rain' ; (IE: 2. g^hei-, {for **g^he:i- from **gheyeH₂}, ‘winter, snow'; RATIONALE: The temperate ‘snow' does duty for the equatorial ‘rain'.

(33)XA-R[H]E-HA-P[?]FO ("soft-palate+fall=swallow-(perfective)=swallowed+place=throat"); E: in S3b(w) {for **S3jb}, ‘meal(s) [food and drink]'; A: shariba {from **sh-r-h-bIE: ghrebh- {for **g^wh(e)rebh- from **g^wereH₂ebh-}, ‘throat', listed incorrectly under 2. ghrebh-, ‘scratch, score, dig[!]'); RATIONALE: The IE basis for this word is *1. g^wer(6)- {**g^wereH₂-; cf. A shariha, ‘be greedy, gluttonous'}, ‘swallow, throat'.

(34)XE-RE ("fur+apply=warm(transitive)"); E: in **S3; A: sharra, ‘expose to the sun'; sharar-un, ‘sparks of fire'; (IE: *g^^wer- , ‘be hot, illuminate'); RATIONALE: Again, we see the preference for expressing an abstract idea with a concrete metaphor.

(34a)XE-RE-¿E ("warm(transitive)-like=warm(intransitive)"); E: in **S3j; A: sharâ {sh-r-y}, ‘dry something in the sun'; shariya, ‘flash repeatedly'; (IE: g^^wer6- , ‘be hot, illuminate'; *g^wher- {better: **g^^wyer from **g^^werey-}, ‘hot, warm'); RATIONALE: Apparently, ‘warming' and ‘illuminating' were closely related (camp-fire[?]); while IE g^wh may be a convenient notation to employ for a group of related reflexes, it is important to notice that it is not original IE phoneme.


(34a-1)XE-RE-¿E-MO ("warm(intransitive)-overall=hot"); E: in S3m {for **S3jm}, ‘be hot, burn'; A: **sh-r-m {from **sh-r-y}; (IE: *g^whermo- {better: **g^^wyermo from **g^^wereyemo-}, ‘hot, warm', listed under *g^wher- , ‘hot, warm'; [see 34a above] ); RATIONALE: PL MO is a commonly used intensive formant.

(40)XA-RE-FA/¿E, ("press-together+apply=press-down-(imperfective)/like=weighing"); E: S3w, ‘weight, worth, value'; A: **sh-r-w/y; (IE: *2. g^wer(-u/-i:)-, ‘heavy, *worth'); RATIONALE: A transaction is based on an equal exchange of worth measured by weight.

(41)XA-M[H]O, ("press-together+wander=get ready and go"); E: Sm, ‘go to, walk, set out'; A: shamma, ‘talk a walk'; (IE: *g^wem-, ‘go, come, be born', listed under g^wa:-); RATIONALE: Apparently, the main idea is preparation before setting out.

(42)K[H]E-N[H]A(-T[?]SA), ("nearby-wave=waver-at-an-angle+body=lean(-ing-body)"); E: **knD; possibly in s-kn, ‘be greedy, lust' (if ‘**cause to be inclined to'); A: khalada, ‘mind, heart'; ?akhlada, ‘lean towards'; (IE: *k^eldh-, ‘inclination (cf. OHG haldo:n, ‘incline towards')', listed under *2. k^el-, ‘incline'{cf. A khâlla, ‘act friendly towards'); RATIONALE: Many of the words for ‘heart' prove to be etymologically based on ‘intention' or ‘will' rather than the physical organ.

(43)QE-N[H]A-HHA, ("milk-vibrate=yellowish-(reflexive)=be yellow"); E: qn(j).t, ‘yellowness, yellow pigment'; A: qaliHa, ‘be yellow (tooth)'; (IE: *g^el6- {**(n)g^eleH₂-}, ‘bright, gleam cheerfully, listed under *g^el-; RATIONALE: IE *1. g^hel-, ‘yellow', may be a result of (n)g^eleH₂-.

(44)Q[H]E-N[H]A(-¿E/-FA), ("bustle-(ingressive)-((like)/(imperfective))=(start-to-be)-bustling=active"); E: qnj, ‘brave, strong, active'; A: qalqala, ‘move, agitate'; qalâ {q-l-w), ‘be restless in bed'; (IE: *2. kal- {**(n)k^el(ey/w)-}, ‘beautiful, healthy, *active (cf. OInd kalyá)'; RATIONALE: Vigorous activity was the ideal. The IE a-vocalism may come from a theoretical Q[H]E-N[H]A-HHA, IE **(n)k^eleH₂-, ‘*set one's self bustling', perhaps seen in A taqallaHa {q-l-H}, ‘be in quest of (sustenance) in time of dearth'.

(45)HHA-P[?]FA(-¿E), ("water-chin=drool=desire strongly(-like=desirous)" {a determinative for jb, ‘kid' [note L ibex], shows a ‘**mouth with saliva dripping down from it'}); E: jb, ‘will, desire, wish, think, suppose'; jbj, ‘thirst after something'; A: Habba, ‘desire, love'; (IE: *abh- {**H₂ebh-}, ‘quick, intense'; in abh-ro-, ‘strong, intense'; RATIONALE: The hieroglyph, Gardiner : 1970 F34 portrays a ‘heart', E jb, which some Egyptologists have incredibly presumed is cognate with A libb-un, ‘heart'(!!!).

(46)XO-N[H]A(-MO), ("squirt-(ingressive)=spurt-overall=copious spurting"); E: Xnm.t, ‘well, cistern'; A: shalla, ‘shed tears'; ?inshalla {sh-l}, ‘dash forth (torrent), fall in large drops (rain)'; shalshala, ‘fall in drops (water), drip (water)'; (IE: g^wel-mo-, ‘steam, smoke', listed under *2. g^wel- , ‘trickle off, run over, well up, throw'; RATIONALE: The process of anal excretion is likened to the outpouring of a well.

(47)¿A-M[H]O(-¿E), ("eye-wander=swing-back-and-forth(-like)=swinging"); E: m3(3) {for **jm[j][33]}, ‘*sickle'; A: ¿amiya, ‘swerve from (duty)'; (IE: *ya/a:m- (incorrectly for **a/a:m {**H₂em-}), ‘dig, dig up, *hoe'; *2. me:- {for *am(e:)- (**H₂em[ey]-)}, ‘mow'; *2. sme:i- {s-mobile + **H₂em[ey]-}, ‘carve, work with a sharp tool, *hoe'; RATIONALE: The basic idea is ‘swinging back and forth'. The same idea of ‘casue to swing' is present with a different formant in IE smeit-, ‘throw'.

(47a)¿A-M[H]O-¿E + RE, ("swinging+apply=observing"); E: m3 {for **jmj3}, ‘*look upon, regard, see to'; A: ¿amarra, ‘keep in a prosperous state [see to]'; (IE: *smei-ro- (incorrectly for **smeir- {s-mobile + **H₂emeyer-; cf. Latin mi:rus, ‘wonderful'; mi:ror, ‘look on with admiration'}), ‘amazing'; RATIONALE: To the basic idea of ‘observing', >b>Latin has added the nuance of ‘approval'; but cf. Spanish mirar, ‘look, glance, behold, see', which preserves the original neutrality of the observation.


(47a-1)¿A-M[H]O-¿E-RE + K[H]XO(-¿E), ("observing-hole(mark)-like=bring to memory"); E: jm3x {for **jmj3xj}, ‘veneration, honor'; A: **¿-m-r-j-y (notice rajaba, ‘honor'); (IE: *mereg^- {incorrectly for **H₂emeyereghey-}, ‘border, edge'; RATIONALE: This derivation is quite uncertain as most readers will readily agree but perhaps still of minimal interest.

(48)?A-K[?]E(-RE), ("across+split-open=puncture(-apply=plant [with a stick])"); E: jkjj , ‘quarryman (jk is written with Gardiner : 1970 A19 ‘bent man leaning on a stick')'; A: ?akara, ‘till (ground), dig'; (IE: *ag^-ro-- {incorrectly for **ag^er- from **H₂eg^er- }, ‘field', listed under ag^- {**H₂eg^-}, ‘drive [not by ‘swinging the arms' as Pokorny has it but rather by ‘goading']'; RATIONALE: This brings us back to the era of planting by dibble-stick, a goad for draft animals, and a pick for loosening stone.

(49)M[H]E-¿A-¿E-SO, ("soft[en]-(perfective)=softened-like=soft+skin=(prepared) skin"); E: ms.t {**mjjs.t is written with Gardiner : 1970 F31 ‘three fox-skins tied together'}, ‘apron of fox-skins'; A: mâ¿az-un {from **m-¿-y-z[?]}, ‘goat-skin'; (IE: *maiso-s- { **meH₂eyes-}, ‘sheep, (animal) skin', listed under moiso-s-; RATIONALE: For M[H]E-¿A-¿E, ‘soft', cf. IE *7. me:i-, ‘soft'. The common Egyptian word for ‘bear a child' is written with this sign. This may be cognate with A mâza, ‘set a thing apart from', corresponding to a weakly attested IE (s-mobile)-meis-, perhaps to be identified under *smeit-, ‘throw (down)'. Pokorny cites Latin mitto: "mit expressiver Verschärfung" but it is easier for me to believe that the Latin forms are derived from **meis-: mitto: from **misto: (-to-present), mi:si, missum from **mistum, all from a PL ME-¿A-¿E-SO ("expel-(perfective)=expelled-like=drop-pull=throw/drop (a litter)").

(50)K[H]E-R[H]A, ("shadow-color=dim/dark"); E: k3, ‘soul, spirit, phantom, *shade'; A: khariya, ‘relieve one's bowels'; (IE: *k^er- , ‘dark, dirty, and gray shades of color', listed under *6. ker-; RATIONALE: The common denominator is the dark color.

(51)X[H]E-¿E-?A, ("point-at+like=pointing-at+(stative)=choice"); E: **Sjj; A: shâ?a {sh-y-?}, ‘will something'; (IE: *k^wei- {for **k^^wei- [cf. Av chayeiti, ‘look for, choose'] from **k^^weyeH₂-}, incorrectly glossed as ‘pile up, collect', which is a distinct root); RATIONALE: Expressing one's will is exercising choice here visualized as ‘pointing'.

(52)?A-FA(-¿E), ("across-(imperfective)(-like)="stretching(/stretched) out on"); E: **jw(j) {perhaps in the enigmatic jw(j) base for the so-called pseudo-verbal construction}; A: ?awâ {?-w-y}, ‘retire anywhere, take shelter in, alight at'; (IE: *2. au- {**H₂ew(ey)-}, ‘spend the night, sleep'); RATIONALE: A very appropriate metaphor. If the analysis of E jw(j) is correct, the pseudo-verbal construction would seem to be an progressive form: "he was engaged in . . .-ing"

(53)¿A-¿E, ("away-like=absent"); E: jj.t, ‘mishap, trouble, harm, wrong [lack, deficiency, omission[?]'; jj, (old) negative particle; A: ¿aiya {¿-y}, ‘be unable, lack power or ability, be ill, disable'; (IE: *3. ai- {**H₂ey-}, ‘give [*away], distribute, take [*away]' and *2. ai- , ‘force into, drive, overpower, sicken'); RATIONALE: I suspect this is probably the most semantically neutral negative we will find. It contrasts with 55 below, which suggests the occurrence previously of the activity being negated; and with 78 below, which apparently is properly applied only to potentially occurring activities.

(54)¿E-HO(-F[H]A), ("voice-charge-(imperfective)=cry-charging=battle-cry"); E: jh(w), ‘exclamation of rejoicing', strengthening of imperatives {"charge!"}; A: **y-h-w; (IE: yo:-, ‘be excited, punish, revenge, *attack {cf. OInd yá:-van- {**yeH₃- }, ‘attacker, pursuer', listed under ya:-; *2. yu/u: {**yeH₃ew-}, ‘cry of joy or victory'; *yew6- {for **ye6ew-}, ‘set in motion', listed under *1. yeu-); RATIONALE: The E jh.t, ‘heavenly cow', suggests a masculine counterpart: *jh, whom I equate with the Hebrew Yah(u), a battle-god.

(54a)¿E-HO-F[H]A-T[?]SE, ("battle-cry-release=warrior"); E: **jhwD; A: yahûd-iyun {y-h(-w)-d}, ‘Jews'; (IE: *yeu-dh- {for 3ewedh- [cf. OInd yo:dhati, ‘fights'}, ‘be in violent motion, fight'); RATIONALE: The Jews are ‘soldiers', perhaps mercenaries. Judah is y'hûdhâh.

(55)NO-HE-¿E, ("(negative)-move-across-from=not-proceed-like=discontinued"); E: n {for *njj}, ‘not'; A: nahî {**n-h-y}, ‘desist from, come to, reach (finish[?])'; (IE: *nei-- {for **ne:i from 4ey-}, sentence negation); RATIONALE: This negation has the idea of ‘discontinuation' as its basal idea, which suggests the occurrence previously of the activity being negated, contrasting with ¿A-¿E in 53 above; and with 78 below, which apparently is properly applied only to potentially occurring activities.

(56)P[?]FE-HHA-RE, ("be-grooved-(perfective)-apply=put-grooves-into"); E: b3 {for **bj3}, ‘hack up, hoe, destroy, devastate'; A: baHara, ‘till (earth)'; (IE: *3. bher- {for <(em>**bheH₂er-[cf. Gr *pháro:, ‘split, chop']}, ‘work with a sharp tool, scratch, cut, rub, split'); RATIONALE: This is a very well-distributed root throughout the world's language, indicating a very high age.

(57)K[H]A-P[H]O-?A, ("desirable-swelling-up=handful-of-something-(stative)=grasp"); E: kf {for **kfj}, ‘gather flowers, despoil, *pluck'; A: khafa?a, ‘snatch and throw down'; (IE: kap- {**kepeH₂-}, ‘grasp'); RATIONALE: ‘Capture' was also expressed by another phonetically similar root: K[?]XO-P[?]O ("hole-swelling=handful") and K[?]XO-P[?]O-T[?]SO ("handful=hold=capture"): E xf, ‘capture' [and xf', ‘grasp, capture'], corresponding to IE**gheub(h)-, ‘**handful' in OIcl gaupn, ‘the hollowed hand'; and Av gava, ‘hands(*ful)s', listed under gow6-, ‘hand, grasp, hand in' {for **ghow6-}; unfortunately not found in Arabic(**j-b-D).

(57a)K[H]A-P[H]O-?A-T[?]SO, ("grasp-hold=capture"); E: kf' {for **kfj'}, ‘make captures, requisition'; A: khafaDa, ‘abash, humble'; (IE: *kap-to- {for **kap-tho-, assimilated from **kap-dho- [**kepeH₂-dho-]}); RATIONALE: It is clear that ‘capture' is understood as permanent possession.

(58)K[H]O(-?A)-P[H]FO, ("cover-(stative)-cattle=covered cattle=hoof(ed beasts)") E: Tb(w), ‘soles of feet' {for **TjbTbj, ‘be shod, provided with sandals'; A: khuff-un, ‘foot of camel or ostrich, sole of the foot'; in khafâ {kh-f-y}, ‘conceal'; (IE: *ka/a:pho- {for **kepheH₂-}, ‘hoof'; *1. (s)kep-, ‘cover, cover up'); RATIONALE: It is interesting to notice that the covering of some animals' feet was apparently noticed before man covered his own.

(59)T[?]SO-MA, ("hold-breast=swallow") E: 'm, ‘swallow, breathe in, absorb'; A: Damma, ‘draw together'; (IE: *2. tem- {for **(s)them- from s-mobile + **dhem-, ‘(choke from) smoke'}, ‘be mentally deranged, choke'); RATIONALE: Interestingly, the original nuance pf arm seems to be present in A Damma, 'embrace'.

(60)T[?]O-ME, ("lump-tongue=swallow") E: tm, ‘close the mouth (probably **swallow)'; A: Tamma, ‘swallow (up)'; (IE: *stem- {from s-mobile + **dem-, ‘**swallow'}, ‘stutter, stammer'); RATIONALE: The drawing back of the tongue in the process of swallowing is indicated.

(61)T[?]O-R[H]O-¿A, ("put-together-spring=sprout-(perfective)=sprouted") E: **tr(j), ‘**sprout (the hieroglyph(s) with which tr(j) is written is Gardiner : 1970 M4-5-6 is considered to be a 'palm-branch stripped of leaves and notched to serve asa tally' but can also be interpreted as ‘new stalk with bud; that this may be correct is suggested by its use as a determinative for ‘young' [rnp.t] but significantly not for ‘old'; also, notice trj.t, ‘reed [but possibly ‘sprout'])'; A: Tala¿a, ‘grow (tooth, plant)'; Talla¿a, ‘sprout'; (IE: *ta:l- {from unattested s-mobile + **da:l- (**teleH₂-}, seen perhaps faintly in *5. del- {for **del6- }, ‘lengthen, long (**grow long)'}, ‘grow, bloom, turn green, growth, young shoot'); RATIONALE: The nuance of ‘growing a tooth' is almost certainly analogous to ‘budding'.

(62)M[H]E-RE(-¿A), ("smooth-apply=smooth-(stative)=smoothed") E: in **w3j; A: mara¿a, ‘anoint'; (IE: *mer6- {**mereH₂-}, ‘rub off, rub, grab, rob', listed under *5. mer-); RATIONALE: The ‘eel' is the paradigm for ‘smoothness'.

(63)M[H]E-R[H]O-¿A, ("smooth+rise=strip-off-(stative)=stripped off (by pulling)") E: **wrj in wrH, see 63a below; A: mala¿a, ‘skin (a sheep), tear off'; (IE: *mel6- {for meleH₂-}, listed under 1. mel-, ‘crush, beat, mill, rub apart'); RATIONALE: ‘To mill' is to strip off the husk of the grain after threshing.

(63a)M[H]E-R[H]O-¿A-K[H]XA, ("stripped-off+hurt=soften-up") E: in wrH {for **wrjH}, ‘anoint, smear on (soften[?])'; A: tamallagha {m-l-gh}, ‘show foolishness (**be soft in the head[?])'; (IE: *mel6k- {for **meleH₂ekh-}, ‘soft, weak, faint, foolish', listed under *1. mel(6)- {**meleH₂-}, ‘crush, beat, mill, rub apart'); RATIONALE: I would be glad for better suggestion s on the semantic analysis hypothesized here.


(63b)M[H]E-R[H]O-¿A-QE, ("stripped-off+juice=milk") E: in **wrq; A: malaqa, ‘nurse (from a mother), *milk'; (IE: *mel6g^- {for **meleH₂e(n)g^-}, ‘pull off, strip off, milk', derived from *mel(6)-, listed under *1. mel- {**meleH₂-}, ‘crush, beat, mill, rub apart'); RATIONALE: The elicitation of milk by a child is likened to producing milk from a female animal.

(64)FA-RE(-¿E), ("round-apply=spin (a fire-stick)-like=spinning") E: w3(j), 'roast (either 'turn' or 'heat'); **w3(j), '**burn, be hot' in w3w3.t, 'fiery one'; ; A: warâ {w-r-y}, 'be kindled (fire)'; waryatu -n-nâri, 'tinder for striking fire'; nâr-un {n-w-r; this is a truncated 7th form of this root (**?inwara), ‘to have been spun=burning'; the 7th form origin is more apparent in the plural ?anwâr-un}; (IE: *12. wer-, '*burn, burn up, blacken, **kindle {cf. Arm vaRem, 'light'}'); RATIONALE: If we paraphrase 'kindle' to 'create heat', we can easily see the semantic connection. This root seems to have done double duty for the idea of 'turning on a spit', 'roasting'.

(64a)FA-RE(-¿E)-MO, ("spin (a fire-stick)-overall=start-a-fire") E: w3m, ‘bake'; A: **w-r-y-m; (IE: *wer-mo-, ‘warm', listed under *12. wer-, ‘*burn, burn up, blacken, **kindle {cf. Arm vaRem, ‘light'}'); RATIONALE: Evidently, MO, "overall", was an important early formative of adjectives of intensity.

(65)ME-¿E-NA-¿A(-¿E), ("emit-like=stick-up+thing=fence-stake-(perfective)=staked(-like=staying {fixed in place})") E: mn(j) {for **mjnjj}, ‘establish, remain, moor, attach'; A: mana¿a {**m-y-n-¿(-y)}, ‘deny, hinder (stop[?])'; (IE: *men- {for **meyeneHey₂-, cf. Lat maneo:, ‘stay'}', ‘stay, stand still while reflecting', derived from *1. mei- {**mey-}, ‘secure, stake' [for another interpretation, see item 152 below]); RATIONALE: The frequently found ¿E, "-like", creates an adjective which can function as a progressive verb; it is probably the source of the IE -i of the so-called ‘primary' endings in verbal forms.

(66)MO-?O-NA-¿E, ("flesh-mouth-thing=neck-like= necklace") E: mnj.t {for **mjnj.t}, ‘necklace'; A: **m-?-n-y; (IE: *mon-yo- {**meH₃eney-}, ‘necklace', listed under *mono-, ‘neck, throat'); RATIONALE: Perhaps the ultimate reference is to the larynx, with which we swallow.

(67)MA-NA-HHA, ("full-thing=handful=give-(reflexive)=receive") E: m n.k {for **mnj.k; the **mnj is written with Gardiner : 1970 T1, ‘prehistoric mace', which is MO-N[H]A-¿A ("pound-(ingressive)=start-to-pound+(perfective)=crushed"), seen in IE *mel6- {for **meleH₂-}, ‘crush' [cf. Latin malleus, ‘hammer', listed under *1. mel--: a different root from 63 above}; cf. A mi¿wal-un [metathesis from **m-l-¿-w[?]], ‘maul, hammer for breaking stone'}, ‘take to yourself (for '**may you receive')'; A: ?imtanaHa {m-n-H}, ‘receive(a gift)'; cf. manna, ‘bestow'; (IE: *m6-n- {**meneH₂-}, ‘hand', listed under *m6-r-, ‘hand'); RATIONALE: Both MA-NA-HHA and MO-N[H]A-¿A would have the same form in Egyptian; **mnj.

(68)¿A-Q[H]O, ("many-squeeze=larynx=throat") E: **jg; A: ¿unq-un, ‘neck (‘**throat')'; (IE: *ank- {**H₂enk in Gothic halsagga, ‘curve of the throat, neck'}, ‘**throat', listed under *2. ank-, ‘bend'); RATIONALE: This seems almost a certain reference to the ‘larynx'.

(69)N[H]O-HHA-FA, ("slack-(reflexive)=be-loose+(imperfective)=being-loose") E: njw, ‘bowl (if made from bark[?]'; A: laHâ {l-H-w}, ‘peel off the inner bark of a tree(**'loosen')'; (IE: *l6u- {**leH₂ew , ‘let loose', listed under *2. leu-); RATIONALE: Also, IE (s)leu-, ‘hanging down slackly', which suggests that, at least in Germanic, s-mobile did not inhibit the modification of /n^h/ to /l/.

(70)?E-N[H]O-¿E, ("away-slack=tired(and drooping)-like=weary") E: the first element is **jnj {written nnj(j), a digraph, I believe, for **jnj}, ‘be weary, inert, drag (of foot)‘; A: ?alâ {?-l-w; better **?-l-y}, ‘be unable to do, be late in doing, neglect, cease'; (IE: *eli/i:-, ‘rest, weary, be inactive, hesitate, cease, **tame', listed under *2. el-); RATIONALE: The basal idea of ‘droop' leads to ‘weary'.

(70a)?E-N[H]O-P[H]FO, ("tired(and drooping)=tame+cattle=herd-cattle"); E: jnb(3), ‘be dumb (if really ‘docile, tame'); A: ?alifa, ‘become tame'; (IE: *la:p- {**H₄eleph}, ‘cow'; RATIONALE: The basal idea of ‘droop' leads to ‘weary' and ‘resigned=tame'.

(70b)?E-N[H]O-P[H]A, ("tired(and drooping)-(diminutive)=droop-slightly") E: jnp, ‘decay (if ‘wilt')'; A: **?-l-f; (IE: *alp- {**H₂elep}, ‘little, weak'); RATIONALE: The basal idea is still ‘droop'.

(71)¿A-N[H]A, ("watch-(ingressive)=look-at')") E: jn(w) {for **jn}, ‘see, look' ; A: **¿-l; (IE: *2. al-, ‘nourish' {**H₂el-}; RATIONALE: The IE root *2. al- , ‘nourish (for ‘**watch over')', seen in this root (¿A-N[H]A) has a different origin than *2. al-, ‘grow', seen in the root (¿A-R[H]O) discussed in 17 above.

(71a)¿A-N[H]A-FA, ("look-at+(imperfective)=looking-at=taking-care-of") E: nw {for **jnw), ‘care for, take care of'; A: **¿-l-w; (IE: *2. al- {for **H₂elew-}, ‘nourish (=‘nurture=take care of'); RATIONALE: Watching for the safety of those for whom we care is literally indicated.


(71b)¿A-N[H]A-P[H]FO, ("look-at=take-care-of=feed+cattle=domestic-cattle") E: jnb.t, ‘fence, stockade, **cattle-yard' ; A: in ma¿laf-un {¿-l-f}, ‘stable'; (IE: *la:p- {**H₂eleph}, ‘cow [‘stable-animal']'); RATIONALE: This contrasts ‘domestic cattle' with P[H]FO-RO, ‘wild cattle' (cf. per- {for **pher-}, ‘steer', in OHG far.


(71c)¿A-N[H]A-P[H]E, (""look-at=take-care-of=feed+small=little-one-who-is-fed=child") E: jnp(w), ‘royal child' ; A: **¿-l-f; (IE: *alp- {**H₂elep-}, ‘little, weak'); RATIONALE: It seems the royal children are in a special category of care.

(72)P[H]FA-S[H]O-FA, ("stink-follow=flatulence-(imperfective)=flatulating") E: bsw, ‘morbid discharges' ; A: in fasâ {f-s-w}, ‘flatulate'; (IE: *1. pe:s- {**phesew-}, ‘blow, whistle'); RATIONALE: Rather expressive.

(73)T[?]SO-R[H]E-¿E-T?O, ("column-come=defecate-like=defecating-lump=piece-of-dung") E: **'3jt; A: DurâT-un {D-r-y-T}, ‘flatulation'; (IE: *dhr-ei-d- {**dhereyed-}, ‘defecate'); RATIONALE: T[?]SO, ‘arm', is used for anything columnar. Here flatulence seems to have taken over a term for defecation in Arabic.

(74)¿A-R[H]O, ("eye-jump=very-bright=very-white") E: **jr, "**white", in jr.t, "eye"; A: ?alla, ‘be clear and bright'; (IE: *6. al -, ‘white, gleaming'); RATIONALE: E ‘eye' is the ‘bright one'; probably also in jrT.t, ‘milk', and jrjj.t, ‘milch-cow'.

(75)?O-P[H]FO-N[H]A, ("toward-stamp=let-fall-(ingressive)=start-to-let-fall=fall") E: **hbn (but note hb, ‘tread out, travel (down to[?])'; hb, ‘humiliate'; A: ?afala, ‘sink, go down (star)'[for any interpretation, see item 120 below]; (IE: *pho/o:l- {H₃ephel-}, ‘fall'); RATIONALE: What falls most often is the foot.

(76)N[H]A-P[H]FE-HHA, ("swim-sting=hotly-flow-(reflexive)=floating-hotly") E: nbj, "melt"; A: lafaHa, ‘burn up, singe'; (IE: *la:[i]p-, ‘illuminate, burn'; but also notice sna:pey-, ‘wash', under sna:-, ‘flow'); RATIONALE: Swimming was equated with floating melted metal.

(77)?A-P[H]A, ("across+pick-off-from=pluck") E: jp, "exact from, count"; A: ?affa, ‘take (medicine)'; (IE: *6p- {**H₂ep }, ‘grasp, take, reach', listed under *1. ap-); RATIONALE: Another very ancient root.

(78)ME-HE, ("expel-coming-up-from=refrain-from") E: m (for **mj[?]), "do not (imperative)"; A: mâ {irregularly from **m-h (cf. mahmaha, ‘prevent from'; tamahmaha, ‘abstain from'}, ‘negative (presumably, originally with future reference)'; (IE: *1. me:- {**meH₄}, ‘(that) not', prohibitive); RATIONALE: This negative, which apparently is properly applied only to potentially occurring activities, contrasts with 53 above (simple absence) and 55 above (prior activity discontinued).

(79)P[?]FA-HA-N[H]A, ("prominent-exhale-(ingressive)=start-to-sigh-expressively=be-sad") E: bjn, ‘bad, evil'; A: bahala, ‘curse'; ibtahala {b-h-l}, ‘implore, beseech'; (IE: *bhle:- {**bheH₂el-}, ‘howl, loudly cry, bleat'; cf. also bheleu-, from which English ‘bale' is derived, ‘beat, make powerless through beating, weak, sick'; and showing the effect of the laryngal: *2. bhle:u-, ‘weak, pitiful'); RATIONALE: The main idea seems to be loud unusual noise, seen also in IE *6. bhel-, ‘roar', which may be this same root with a suppression of the laryngal before a liquid [?]. The abstract idea of ‘sadness' is designated by its perceptible manifestation.

(80)HE-F[H]A-?A, ("coming-up-from-(imperfective)=exiting=emptying-(stative)=empty") E: jw(jj), negative; A: hawa?a, ‘empty'; basal element in hawa¿a, ‘vomit (‘empty out')'; hawiya, ‘be wide (wound) (**'gaping'); huwîya, ‘bereft (of children)'; (IE: eu6 {**H₄eweH₂}, ‘lack, empty', listed under *1. eu-); RATIONALE: The roots in A based on HA, ‘air/wind', are to be keep separate in spite of the attractiveness of ‘airy'**='empty', based on the IE reflexes (H₄).

(81)MO-FA-T[?]O-$E, ("blood-(imperfective)=bleeding+lump=blood-clot-like=bloody, unclean"); E: mt {for **mwtj; the Gardiner : 1970 determinative for this word, A14, is ‘man with blood streaming from his head'}, ‘dead'; A: mâta (m-w-t, for **mâTya; evidently, y can occasionally de-velarize a preceding apical consonant}, ‘die'; (IE: *meu-d-y, ‘*filth (cf. Gr múdos, 'wetness, filth')', listed under *1. meu-, ‘wet, moldy, sprinkle, unclean liquid (so, urine), dirty'); RATIONALE: For early societies, a corpse soon became unacceptably unclean.

(82)T[?]A-R[H]A, ("hand-fly=tremble"); E: d3, ‘shake, tremble'; A: tartara {t-r}, ‘shake, stir'; (IE: *3. (der-), ‘run, stamp, *tremble {cf. OHG zittaro:m, ‘tremble'}'); RATIONALE: Here the obvious trembling of a hand is often to general shaking.

(83)M[H]O-¿E-HHA, ("wander-like=change-place(s)+(perfective)=exchanged"); E: mj, ‘like (‘exchangeable'), according, as'{for **mjj}; mjj, ‘likewise, accordingly'; A: istamâHa {m-y-H}, ‘ask for a gift'; (IE: *2. mei {for *meyeH₂}, ‘change, exchange); RATIONALE: Here the obvious trembling of a hand is often to general shaking. I believe this root is the basis for the Sumerian me, the gift of which to Inannak conferred rulership of nature, here meaning "knowledge of the reciprocal relationships which constitute the laws of nature".

(84)M[H]E-R[H]O-?A, ("soft(-ones)=sheep+rise-(stative)=high=high-in-sheep=wealthy") ; E: wr {**wrj}, ‘great, many, much'; A: malâ?a {m-l-?}, ‘be rich, wealthy'; (IE: *4. mel {for **meleH₂-}, ‘strong, large'; RATIONALE: At the Pontic-Nostratic stage of development, sheep-flocks were the primary source of wealth.

(85)F[H]A-N[H]A-¿E, ("assemble(in a circle)-(ingressive)=start-to-assemble=associate+like=friendly") ; E: wn {**wnj}, ‘*companion (caption of sandal-bearer on N'r-mr pallette)'; in wn.wt {for **wnj.wt, ‘priesthood (='association')'; A: walî {w-l-y}, ‘be a friend'; (IE: **welei, not listed but hypothesized as a form of *3. wel-, ‘push, press, push together, press together'); RATIONALE: Those who are permitted in the vicinity are objects of affection.

(85a)F[H]A-N[H]A-¿E-P[H]O, ("friendly+swell-up=exhilaration") ; E: wnf {**wnjf}, ‘be joyful [‘celebrate=congregate{?}']'; A: wâlafa {w-l-f}, ‘to have familiar intercourse with (‘congregate[?]')'; (IE: **welpi- {metathesis from **welip-}, ‘*have pleasure', listed under *2. wel-, ‘want, choose', but properly derived from *3. wel-, ‘push, press, push together, press together'); RATIONALE: It takes more than one to have a party.

(86)FA-NA-¿E, ("flaccid-penis-(thing)=weak+like=remiss") ; E: wnj, ‘neglect'; A: wanâ {w-n-y}, ‘be weak, remiss, slow'; (IE: **weni-, ‘lack, empty, *weak', listed incorrectly under *1. eu-, which properly is ‘*empty'); RATIONALE: A familiar metaphor for ‘weakness' even today. There is a Old Egyptian negative, w, which may have the nuance of ‘neglected/failed to do', with the implication that the action was anticipated by the speaker, similar to the Old Egyptian negative 3, PL R[H]E, ‘come', which seems to have been a negative in the sense of ‘come from (doing)', i.e. ‘stop doing', implying the previous occurrence of the activity being ‘negated'.

(87)F[H]E-N[H]A-¿E, ("disperse+(ingressive)=start-to-separate=pull-away-from") ; E: wnj, ‘hasten, hurry, pass by, pass away'; A: wallâ {w-l-y}, ‘to turn away from, shun'; ?istaulâ {w-l-y}, ‘overpower, get mastery over {‘surpass[?]'}'; (IE: *w(e)lei-, ‘turn, wrap, revolve', listed under *7. wel-); RATIONALE: The IE root has the sense of ‘turn from'.

(88)SA-RE, ("sinew-apply=loop") ; E: **z3, the ‘looped cord' (Gardiner : 1973 V16), which is inaccurately characterized as ‘serving as hobble for cattle'; it is, instead, an ornamental ‘button', a fastening for clothing; A: ?azara, ‘surround (but more clearly seen in zarrara, ‘put into loops'; and tazarrara, ‘loop (intr. vb.)'; this suggests that ?azara is a IV form (?a-) of an unattested **zar-, ‘**loop' = ‘**cause to be in a loop')'; (IE: *4. ser-, ‘line up together, tie'); RATIONALE: The root discussed above under 7 specifies ‘immobilization', and, as such, specifically correlates with IE *4. ser- {for **H₄eser-}, in the meaning of ‘tie'; however, in the meaning of ‘line up together', it correlates with the root discussed above, for which we do not have an attested E **z3, ‘**line up together'.

(89)SE-R[H]E-¿A, ("seed-fall-(perfective)=sowed") ; E: **z3j; A: zara¿a, ‘cast seeds, sow'; (IE: **ser-, ‘**sow (cf. Latin sero:, ‘sow [if not from si-s-o:]'), listed under *2. se:(i)-, ‘sow'; **st(e)r6- {**sreH₂- becomes **s-t-reH₂- for ease of pronunciation, only in the meaning of ‘strew'}, ‘spread out, strew'; RATIONALE: Egyptian evidently preferred the expression in 90 above for ‘sow'.

(90)SE-K[?]O(-FA/¿E), ("seed+bow-back=throw(-(imperfective)/(-like)=sow(-ing)") ; E: zTw, ‘sower'; zTj, ‘strew, scatter, *sow (the determinative pictures a ‘man throwing seed')'; A: zakâ {z-k-w}, ‘to grow (plant) (‘cause to grow by sowing seed[?]')'; zakî {z-k-y}, ‘to grow (plant)'; (IE: **segw-/**segy-, ‘sow', listed under *1. seg-); RATIONALE: Perhaps 89 and 90 denote different methods of sowing: dropping a seed vs. strewing seed.

(91)SA-?E(-¿E)(-RE), ("strong-tooth=eat-heartily(-like=sated)(-apply=satisfy)") ; E: **zj(j) in z3j(j) {metathesis for **zj(j)3}, ‘be satisfied, sated'; A: ?aza?a {**z-?, seen also in za?ama, ‘glut (with food)'; apparently a IV form: ‘cause to eat heartily'}, ‘to feed to the full, satiate (sheep)'; ?az?â {z-?-y), ‘make someone heavy'; (IE: *s6- {**seH₄-}, ‘sated, satisfy', listed under *sa:-; and possibly **s6r- {**seH₄er-} in Greek á-sa:ros, ‘contemptible, arousing disgust [‘not at all satisfying'{?}]'); RATIONALE: A rather graphic paraphrase. A closely related root appears to be SA-?E-T[?]A, ("eat-heartily-give=fill-up-someone"), seen in A za?ata, 'fill someone with anger', and IE*s6d-, 'sated', in OHG sat, listed under *sa:-.

(92)SO-FA-RA, ("skin-(definite plural)=skins+vertebrae=back") ; E: **s3 {for **sw3; cf. Coptic soi, ‘back'}, ‘back'; A: zûr-un {z-w-r}, "upper part of the breast'; tazârara {z-w-r}, ‘to deviate, turn from {‘turn the back on'}'; ?azr-un {for z-(w[?])-r}, ‘back'; (IE: *3. swer-, ‘post'; *swer-, ‘hang up', listed under *1. wer-); RATIONALE: Notice also Basque *sor-, ‘*back', in sorbalda, ‘shoulder' (balda, ‘shelf'); and sorburu, ‘shoulder' (buru, ‘top'); Sum *sur-5, ‘*hang up, dangle'). For IE and Sum, to ‘back' something is to ‘carry it on the back' (see 95 below).

(93)K[?]XE-R[H]A, ("face-color=red") ; E: H3, ‘Ha, desert-god [‘red one=sun']'; A: **jar- (see RATIONALE below); (IE: *3. g^her- , ‘beam, shine, shimmer'); RATIONALE: All men, regardless of skin-color, redden when angry. The basal idea of ‘red' can be detected in the following Arabic derivates: jaraHa, ‘wound (‘redden')'; jâriHa-tun, ‘flesh-eating animals'; jaraZa, ‘strangle (face turns ‘red')'; jiryâl-un, ‘golden-red color'; and jâriHa-tun, ‘flesh-eating animals, birds of prey (cf. E H3jj.w, ‘carrion-birds')'. For IE, ‘red' is the basis for Czech zoRe, ‘dawn'; MHG grau-en, ‘dawn' (K[?]XE-R[H]A-F[H]A (‘red-(imperfective)=reddening; cf. A jarw-un, ‘pomegranate (‘red')'); and perhaps Gr khró:s, ‘skin, skin-color'.

(93a)K[?]XE-R[H]A-MO, ("red-most=reddest, very-red") ; E: in H3mw, ‘a kind of wine (‘red' wine[?])'; A: jarm-un, ‘hot (‘red[?]')'; jarâm-un, ‘dry dates {‘red'[?]}'; (IE: *ghrem- {for **g^herem-}, ‘be angry'); RATIONALE: All men, regardless of skin-color, redden when angry.


(93b)K[?]XE-R[H]A-¿E, ("red-like=reddish, orange") ; E: in H3mw, ‘a kind of wine (‘red' wine[?])'; A: jâriya-tun, ‘sun (‘orange[?]')'; (IE: *g^hre:i- {for **g^herei-}, ‘*orange {cf. OIr grían, ‘sun'}'); RATIONALE: One of the many color characterizations of the sun.

(94)(¿A-)P[?]O-RA(-¿E), ("much-swell+spinal-column=greatly-swollen-back=burden-carried-on-the-back=bear") ; E: f3j, 'raise, lift up, carry, support, weigh, present, deliver'; A: ?abarra {b-r}, 'to take someone along to'; ¿abara, 'to convey anyone across a river'; ?ista¿bara, 'weigh (coins)'; in this connection, ¿iba?-un, 'burden, load, bag', should also be noticed; (IE: *bher6- {**H₂eber-}, 'carry, bring, lift up, raise up', listed under *1. bher-); RATIONALE: This is another excellent example of the preference for concrete images ('sack-sack') to express more complex verbal ideas. Notice also ¿ibrîy-un, 'Hebrew' and ¿âbir-un, 'wayfarer, passer along'. This strongly suggests that the ‘Habiru' and ‘Hebrews' were vagabonds and pack-bearers.

(95)S[H]O-FA-RE, ("(causative)-round-apply=cause-to-be-made-round=cause-to-be-heavy-set=cause-to-be-heavy") ; E: s3j {for **sw3j (see 92 above; same spelling as for 'back')}, 'be satisfied ('heavy with food'), wise ('weighty')'; A: wariha, 'be fat'; in warima, 'to be swollen'; (IE: *swer- {s-mobile + wer-}, 'bind, line up, hang up (for weighing); therefore, heavy; cord, rope', listed under *1. wer-; 3. wer-, 'turn, bend, *circular [base for 'worm, snake, snail, rod, needle', etc.; all 'round']'; 2. wer-, 'raised place on the skin, *blister ['round thing']'); RATIONALE: Yet another example of the preference for concrete images ('fat person') to express more complex verbal ideas.

(96)X[H]O-R[H]E-¿E, ("quantity+come=receive-value=sell+like=selling"); E: **X3j; A: sharâ {sh-r-y}, ‘purchase, sell'; (IE: *k^wrei-, ‘sell'); RATIONALE: This metaphor visualizes the transfer of goods to the seller.

(97)¿A-P[?]O-FA, ("many-swell-(imperfective)=swelling"); E: jwf {for **jfw}, ‘joint (of meat)'; A: ?a¿bâ {**¿-b-w not ¿-b-y!}, ‘fill up a bag (a IV form causative: ‘cause to be swollen')'; simplex is found in ¿abba, ‘rise and swell (sea)'; (IE: 2. *b(h)eu- {**H₂ebew-}, ‘blow, swell'); RATIONALE: The metaphor is the swelling of the cheeks when blowing air from the mouth.

(98)¿A-P[?]FA-N[H]A, ("much-prominent-(ingressive)=start-to-stand-out"); E: bnn {**bjn(n); metathesis from **jbn(n); E nn is a digraph for **jn(n) in my opinion}, ‘beget, become erect, overflow'; A: ¿abala, ‘to be large, thick'; (IE: *bhle:- {**H₂ebel-}, ‘blow up, swell up, bubble, be full of something', listed under *3. bhel-; cf. Gr phallós, ‘penis'); RATIONALE: The metaphor here is the projection of the chin.For another interpretation, see item 21.

(99)P[?]E-RO, ("pour-out-(augmentative)=pour-out-strongly"); E: pr(j), ‘burst forth (of storm)'; A: balla, ‘to wet, moisten'; (IE: *2. u:r- {**be-ro-}, ‘*urine (cf. Latin u:ri:na, ‘urine')', listed incorrectly under *9. a(w)e-, ‘sprinkle, dampen, flow'); RATIONALE: This is a straightforward composition of common elements.

(100)NA-HE-R[H]E, ("inside-river-come=come-underneath"); E: **nj3 (possibly in nj3.w, ‘ibex (if ‘hider')'); A: nahara, ‘flow abundantly, dig a channel (for a river), to make a raid in the daytime (‘come undetected, hidden temporarily[?]')'; (IE: *ne:r- {**neH₄er-; cf. Gr Ne:reús, ‘sea-god'}; probably the personified current)', listed under *3. ner-, ‘force into, submerge, hiding place'); RATIONALE: This is a transference from ‘submerge in water' to ‘hide under something'.

(101)HHA-NHA, ("water-wave=foam=foamy-white"); E: **jn; A: Halla, ‘to come off (color) = ‘whiten[?], absolve, dilute (‘lighten[?]')'; (IE: *6. al- {**H₂el-}, ‘white, gleaming'); RATIONALE: Color was an extremely important method of classification for the ancients; and many specific color designations hide behind bland dictionary entries like ‘gleaming'. Additionally, it might be noted that A HalHal-un is the bulbus esculentus, ‘sweet onion', while IEa:lu- (see 101b below) refers to the ‘onion' also (cf. also E HD.w, ‘onions, ‘white ones').

(101a)HHA-N[H]A-P[?]FE, ("foamy-white-track=foamy-white-animal=horse / white (spot)"); E: jnb, ‘wall (see below under IE; but perhaps HHA-N[H]A-P[?]FO, ‘white place = wall (from the plaster coating')'; A: Halaba, ‘to milk'; (IE: *albho- {**H₂elebh-}, ‘white, *wall[?] (cf. Latin Alba Longa, ‘city built by Ascanius'; the adjective ‘longus' causes me to suspect that ‘alba' may have meant ‘wall', from the practice of plaster-coating walls)'); RATIONALE: IE albhi, ‘(pearl) barley', should also be noticed HHA-N[H]A-P[?]FE-¿E, ("foamy-white-like"). For ‘horse', notice A Halba-tun, ‘horses assembled for a race'.


(101b)HHA-N[H]A-F[H]A, ("foamy-white-(imperfective)=foaming=sweet [from foaming beverages]"); E: **jnw; A: Halâ {H-l-w}, ‘to be sweet'; (IE: *alu- {**H₂elew-}, ‘beer, mead, *sweet'); RATIONALE: While some beers might be characterized as ‘bitter', a meaning given for alu- in Pokorny's dictionary, it is not conceivable that ‘mead' could be so characterized; and the term is applied to both in Northern Europe.

(102)¿O-P[H]O-NA, ("hold-sniff/nose-thing=bad-smelling"); E: **hfn; A: ¿afina, ‘to be moldy, corrupt, putrid'; muta¿affin-un {¿-f-n}, ‘miasmatic (air)'; (IE: in **pon-yo- {**H₃epen-}, ‘swamp', listed under *2. pen-, ‘muck, swamp, water, damp'); RATIONALE: Again, we have a very concrete picture to describe an idea.

(103)NO-?A-(¿E), ("put away-(stative)-removed(-like)=no"); E: n {for **nj(j), ‘no'; A: na?â {n-?-y}, ‘remove'; (IE: *ne(i)- {from 2(ey)-}, word negation in individual languages, listed under *1. ne); RATIONALE: This seems to be a ‘nominal' form of the negative discussed above in 55.

(104)NO-P[?]O-?A, ("(negative)-swell-(stative)=no-bud(-**yet)=new"); E: **nfj; A: in nabba?a, ‘announce (news) to some one'; ?istanba?a {n-b-?}, ‘ask for (news)'; naba?-un {n-b-?}, ‘news, information'; for a basal meaning of ‘bud', cf. A nabata, ‘sprout (plant)'; nawâbita, ‘inexperenced young men'; manabit-un, ‘origin {‘where it was new'}; possibly IE *1. nebh-, ‘burst (if signifying the parting of the bark to allow a new bud to form)';(IE: **new6- [this form is a reduction from **new(e6)os; see below] {**nebeH₂-}, ‘**new', listed under *newos {from **neweH₂eyos = **new6- + yes, affirmative particle [cf. E js, ‘surely'; Coptic eis, ‘behold!' ; IE **yes- in Eng yes; PL ¿E-S[H]O, "say-same=affirm"]}); RATIONALE: A young growing plant that has not yet formed its first bud is very new.

(104a)NO-P[?]O-?A-RO, ("new-(comparative)=very-new"); E: nfr, ‘beautiful (with the newness of youth; cf. snfr, ‘restore (‘cause to be new')')'; A: **nb(?)l; (IE: **newero-, ‘**newer', listed under *newos, ‘new'[see 104 above]); RATIONALE: It would be difficult to recognize ‘new(er)' in E nfr, ‘beautiful', except for its interesting other attested meanings. E nfr.w is used for ‘army recruits' and ‘young men of the army'; this is probably like the colloquial English ‘newby'; nfr.w also means ‘deficiency', which probably should be understood in the sense of the lack of full potential due to immaturity. It is also used in the phrase nfr.w grH, ‘end of the night', where it should be understood to mean ‘newness of the morning which ends the night'. E nfrjj.t is used for ‘end'; it signifies the end by identifying it as where something new starts. But its most interesting extended use is as a pseudo-negative, which denies an occurrence: jr wnn nfr pw Ddd.t nb.t (j)r.s, ‘if it should (usually) happen that saying anything (regularly) about it would be that which (pw) was new . . .', which we would better understand as: ‘if it (usually) happens that saying anything (regularly) about it is something that has not yet occurred . . .'

(105)N[H]A-¿E, ("hidden-like=not-apparent=apparently-not"); E: **nj; A: lâ {l-y}, negative; (IE: *la:i-, listed under *2. la:- , ‘hidden, be hidden from'; see 105a below); RATIONALE: This negative seems to assert only that the activity or state being negated is not apparent or able to be seen.

(105a)N[H]A-¿E-HA, ("not-apparent-(stative)=concealed"); E: **njj; A: lâha {l-y-h}, ‘to be hidden, concealed'; (IE: *la:i- {**leyeH₂-}, ‘hidden, be hidden from', listed under *2. la:-); RATIONALE: The basal idea is ‘moving around inside', and hence ‘not seen'.

(106)NA-M[H]O, ("nose-wander=go-back-and-forth"); E: nm(j), ‘travel, traverse'; nmnm, ‘go to and fro'; nm, ‘go wrong (of plans) [the idea is that the plan is disseminated to the wrong people; cf. A namma, ‘to relate talks malevolently']'; A: namma, ‘spread an odor, diffuse its perfume'; nâmma-tun {n-m}, ‘movement, life'; namnama, ‘streak the ground (wind)'; (IE: *1. nem-, ‘apportion, take, pasture (cattle)'; it is in this meaning that the nuance of ‘back and forth' movement originates; RATIONALE: The idea here seems to be adventitious movement.

(107)NO-MO, ("be-stored-(nouns of place)=storage-place"); E: nm, ‘rob, steal (‘take for new personal use by storing it elsewhere')'; nm.w, ‘vats (‘storage')'; A: namma, ‘spread an odor, diffuse its perfume'; (IE: *1. nem-, ‘apportion, take, pasture (cattle)'; this is clearly a different root from that discussed in 106 above, with the meaning ‘take', i.e. ‘put in a storage place (cf. Gr nómos, ‘residence [‘storage-place']')'; RATIONALE: Again, a concrete image for a verbal idea.

(108)N[H]O-HHA-M[H]O, ("small-(perfective)=gone-into-small-pieces+overall=completely-dismembered ("butchered")"); E: nm.t, ‘slaughter-house (which implies **njm, ‘slaughter')'; A: laHama, ‘butcher (a man)'; malHam-un {l-H-m}, ‘slaughter-house'; (IE: *1. lem- {for **leH₂-}, ‘break apart, broken apart, soft'; RATIONALE: Quite interesting, IE records another root which probably is related: **2. lem-, ‘*cannibal (cf. Gr lámia, ‘female cannibal', which suggests, with Latin lemure:s, ‘spirits of the night', that the root may have been expanded by i[y] or u[w], to produce this nuance.)'.

(108a)N[H]O-HHA-M[H]O, ("small-(perfective)=gone-into-small-pieces+overall=completely-impaired-by-injury ("lame")"); E: nm.w, ‘dwarves {for **njm.w (this word is spelled once with n+(j)mw)}'; A: **l-H-m; (IE: *1. lem- {for **leH₂-}, ‘break apart, broken apart, soft, *lame (cf. OHG lam, ‘lame, crippled')'; RATIONALE: This seems to be only a specialized application of the root in 108 above.

(109)P[H]O-NA-FA-T[?]A-S[H]E, ("hiss-nose-(imperfective)=exhaling+give=sneeze+leave=(involuntarily-)give-a-sneeze=nose ["sneezer"]"); E: fnD {with collapse of dz into D: from **fn(w)dz}, ‘nose (‘sneezer')'; A: finTîs-atun {with velarization of t to T because of the preceding w: from **f-n-w-t-s-}, ‘dog or wolf's muzzle, pig's snout'; (IE: *pneust- {with metathesis from and devoicing of the d before s: from **pneuds-}, ‘sneeze, exhale', listed under *pneu-, ‘cough, breathe'; cf. IE sneud-, ‘sniffle', listed under sna:-, ‘flow, dampness'; RATIONALE: For the meaning ‘nose' in IE, Armenian pinc or pinj, ‘nostril', and Ossetic finj, ‘nose', may be noted.)

(110)¿O-PF[H]O-QE, ("hold-stamp-congeal=fix-together-by-tying-to-stakes=firmly-hold-in-place"; for "congeal", cf. Greek págos, ‘ice'); E: hbq, ‘beat up, triturate, hedging in game with barriers while hunting'; cf. hb, ‘thresh grain by stamping on (asses)', and IE *1. op-, ‘work, bring to pass, yield of labor, riches, *thresh grain (Latin Ops, ‘goddess of the harvest'); A: ¿afaqa, ‘catch, seize a thing'; ¿affaqa, ‘drive (sheep) together'; (IE: **pa:g^- {for **H₃epheng^-; cf. OHG fang}, ‘*catch, booty', listed under *pa/a:k^-, ‘make firm, made firm, solid, firm - in part through forceful insertion and partly through fitting-into'); RATIONALE: In order to discover whether an IE g/k was originally **ng/nk, a language which has kept the original velar nasals in one of more of the forms of the word must be found.

(111)T[?]SE-RE-S[H]E, ("release-apply-separate= take-the-covering-off-of"); E: D3s {older form of D3js, for **D3z}, ‘dispute, argue, oppose (‘let go'[?])'; A: darasa, ‘thrash, thresh'; dârisa-un, ‘erased, effaced, worn out'; (IE: *dhers- , ‘dare, be brave, older: attack, come off'; RATIONALE: The logic behind this expression seems to be the idea of ‘releasing the inhibitions against expressing anger'.

(112)P[H]A-T[H]O-HA, ("flat-(iterative)= flatten-repeatedly-(stative)=flattened=fallen"); E: ptpt {for **ptj-ptj}, ‘tread, trample [‘let fall, cause to fall{?}']'; A: tafaSfaSa {f-S(-h); cf. faSuHa, ‘to be without froth (milk)', ‘**flat/fallen[?]'; see 113 below}, ‘scatter (‘let fall[?]'), run away'; (IE: *pet6- {**peteH₂-}, ‘to fall down on something'; **pet6- in Latin patella, ‘knee-cap (not ‘flattened one' but rather ‘little one upon which one falls')', listed under *2. pet-; RATIONALE: The idea of ‘falling' rather unexpectedly seems not to be related to ‘motion downwards' so much as to the ‘becoming flat' that results from something being submerged in water or lying horizontal on the ground.

(113)P[H]A-T[H]O-HHA, ("flatten-repeatedly-(perfective)=flattened-out=spread-out"); E: **ptj; A: faSuHa, ‘to be without froth (milk)' (‘**flat[?]'); (IE: *pet6- {**peteH₂-}, ‘spread out, especially the arms', listed under *1. pet-; RATIONALE: It is tempting to compare E ptx, ‘be stretched out', but this is probably to be analyzed as **p-t(w)x, "over-pull".

(114)P[H]A-T[?]A, ("flat-hand=(crush-with-)open-hand=crushed"); E: **pd (but cf. pds, ‘stamp flat, flatten [if not from ds {p-ds}]'; A: fatta, ‘bruise, crush, crumble with the fingers'; (IE: **sped- {s-mobile + **ped-}, ‘*crush (cf. MHG spa:t, ‘leaflike fragile stone', listed under sp(h)e:-, ‘words for long, flat wooden pieces')'); RATIONALE: Again, the preference for a concrete image to express a verbal idea.

(114a)P[H]A-T[?]A-HHA, ("flat-hand=open-(perfective)=opened-up"); E: pd {for **pdj}, ‘knee (‘one that opens'); A: fataHa, ‘open'; (IE: *ped- {for **ped6- [**pedeH₂-]; alternate explanation for IE **ped- because of Latin pando: {from **pad-n-o:}, ‘open, spread out'}, ‘spread out', listed under *1. pet-, ‘spread out, especially the arms'); RATIONALE: Again, the preference for a concrete image to express a verbal idea.

(115)P[H]E-¿E-T[?]SE, ("small-like=thin-release=stretch"); E: pD {for **pjD}, ‘stretch, extend, diffuse'; A: fâda {f-y-d}, ‘continue, last'; (IE: *spidh- {**s-mobile+peyedh-}, ‘span', listed under *3. sp(h)e:(i)-, ‘flourish, spread out = become fat, proceed, have success, succeed‘; RATIONALE: Evidently, in the process of ‘stretching', the ‘becoming thin (small)' aspect of the process is more salient than the idea of the tension generated.

(116)S[H]O-P[H]E-¿E-T[?]A, ("(causative)+small-like=pointed-give=put-a-point-on=pointed"); E: spd {for s-causative + **pjd}, ‘sharp'; A: **f-y-t; (IE: *spid- {**s-mobile+peyed-}, ‘point', listed under *1. (s)p(h)e/e:(i)-, ‘pointed, pointed piece of wood'; RATIONALE: The ‘smallness', of course, refers to the narrowing at the point.

(117)RE-¿E-X[H]O-T[?]SO, ("scratch-like-(intensive)-(names of tools)=scratch-energetically=engrave+tool=engraving-tool=engrave"); E: 3X' {for **3jX'; the determinative is Gardiner : 1970 D51: ‘finger horizontally (showing fingernail)}, ‘scratch, scrape, carve, engrave'; A: base in **?arasha {causative IV-form of **r-y-sh, ‘**cause to be scratched'}, ‘scratch with the nails'; (IE: *reikt- (cf. Lith riêkti, ‘cut (bread), plough for the first time') {**reik^wth- from **reik^wdh-}, ‘scratch', listed under *1. rei-, ;scratch, cut'; rek^þh- {**reik^wth- from **reik^wdh-; here, the i has palatalized the k and disappeared}, ‘damage'; RATIONALE: In order to specify ‘engrave' rather than simply ‘scratch', the tool-formant, T[?]SO, is employed.

(118)T[H]SA-F[H]A-¿E-P[?]FE ("stand-up-(imperfective)=standing-like=erect+digit=erect-digit=finger ("penis")"); E: Db' {for **Dwjb (this word uses Gardiner : 1970 D50, ‘(vertical) finger', to indicate the medial /wj/)}, ‘finger, thumb, toe, digit'; A: ?aSba¿-un {S-(w-y-)b-¿}, ‘finger'; (IE: **(s)te/e:ibh-{s-mobile + **theweyebh-}, ‘**finger, penis', listed under *ste/e:ibh-, ‘pole, stick, stiff, push together'); RATIONALE: For an extended explanation of the methodology that was employed to reach the reconstructions contained in this entry, click here.

(119)T[?]SE-FA-RA, ("finger-(definite plural)=pair-of-fingers=door-pivots-spine=(door-)post"); E: '3 {for **Dw3 (in this word, Pontic-Nostratic t^?sawara has become t^?s^wara so that the Egyptian reflex is that for t^?s^wa, which is '}, ‘door'; A: dauwara {d-w-r}, ‘revolve'; (IE: *dhur- {**dhewer-}, ‘door', listed under *dhwe/e:r-; from ‘door-post', we also have *dhewer, ‘whirl', listed under *4. dheu-, ‘be thrown up in a cloud', which is a sister-root derived from T[?]SE-FA, "release-(imperfective)=releasing"); RATIONALE: The Egyptian sign employed to write '3 is Gardiner : 1970 O29, ‘wooden column', which any casual observer will immediately recognize is rather a ‘hand-held pointed stick for whirling to create a perforation, a hand-drill'.

(120)?O-P[H]A-N[H]A, ("toward-flat-(ingressive)=start-to-get-flat-towards=begin-to-fall-towards"); E: **hpn; A: ?afala, ‘set (star), dry up (milk)' [for another interpretation, see 75 above]; (IE: *pho/o:l- {H₃epel-}, ‘fall'); RATIONALE: We still see the idea of ‘flatness' being an essential part of the idea of ‘falling'.

(121)XA-¿E-T[?]SA, ("press-together-like-long=knead into a roll, repeatedly squeeze"); E: Sdj {for earlier **SjDj}, ‘suckle';Sd.t {for **SjD.t}, ‘dough'; A: shâda {sh-y-d}, ‘to coat with plaster'; (IE: *g^weid(h)-, ‘mud, semi-liquid filth'); *ske/e:id(h)- in Lithuanian skíedzhiu, ‘to dilute, thin down', listed under*ske/e:i-, ‘cut, separate, leave'); RATIONALE: The interchange of older Egyptian D with Middle Egyptian is a well-known phenomenon; in the case of Sd.t, we have an actual Old Kingdom spelling of S-j-D-t. From the process whereby dough/batter was prepared, the consistency of the batter (semi-liquid) was characterized.

(122)P[H]A-?A-T[?]SO, ("flat-(stative)=flattened-hold=eat(-of)"); E: in p'.t {for **pj'.t}, ‘a cake or loaf'; A: ?af?ûd-un {f-?-d}, ‘bread baked in hot ashes'; (IE: **pa:dh- {for **peH₂edh-, cf. Gothic fo:djan, ‘nourish'}, ‘feed, care for, pasture', listed under pa:-); RATIONALE: Interestingly, the incidental detail of how the food is held (‘flattened') seems to be the essence of this root.

(123)HHO-P[H]FO-(¿E), ("immobilize-cattle=domestic-cattle-like=(watching-over)domestic-cattle=pasture-cattle"); E: in hb, ‘travel (all over[?])'; in hbhb, ‘traverse country, drive out pain'; A: Haffa, ‘surround, emcompass'; Hafiya {H-f-y}, ‘to walk barefoot'; (IE: *1. po:(i)- {for **H₃eph(ey)-}, ‘pasture cattle, preserve, protect, cover over'); RATIONALE: If cattle are domestic, they must be pastured.

(124)HHA-P[H]FO-T[H]SO, ("move(-across)=mill(ing)-cattle=cattle-pasture+move-in-a-circle=circle-around-milling-cattle=care-for=protect"); E: **jb'; A: HafiZa, ‘preserve'; (IE: *pa:-t- {for **H₂epheth-}, ‘feed, care for, pasture', listed under pa:-); RATIONALE: This describes the shepherd's patrol of the flock.

(125)HHO-P[H]A, ("immobilize-(move-)over=permanent-procedure"); E: in hp, ‘law, ordinance'; A: Haff-un {H-f}, ‘right, truth, duty, justice'; (IE: *1. op- {for **H₃ep-}, ‘work, bring into existence, reward of labor, riches, duty, *custom'); RATIONALE: This may be mankind's oldest word for the compelling power of tradition.

(126)FA-HA-¿E, ("fragile-(stative)-like=weak"); E: in wj3wj3 {for **wjj [wj3 is a relatively late spelling which I presume represented phonetically /waya:, which earlier would have been spelled wjj]}, ‘hair'; A: in wahâ {w-h-y}, ‘to be weak'; (IE: *wa/a:i- {**weH₂ey-}, ‘weak, pitiful'; RATIONALE: This is ‘weak' in the sense of ‘fragile' rather than ‘without strength'.

(127)XO-HHA-NA, ("squirt-(perfective)=squirted-thing=blister"); E: in Xn {for **Xjn}, ‘blister'; A: shaHana, ‘to fill'; (IE: *2. g^when- {for **g^weH₂en-}, ‘swell, be full of something, fullness'); RATIONALE: The idea seems to be something which, when punctured or ruptured, can ‘squirt' liquid.

(127a)XO-HHA-NA-HA, ("squirt-(perfective)=squirted-thing=blister-(stative)=blistered=beaten=rowed"); E: in Xnj {for **Xjnj}, ‘to row'; A: shaHana, ‘to drive someone away'; (IE: *2. g^when-(6)- {for **g^weH₂eneH₂-}, ‘beat [‘paddle(?)']'); RATIONALE: For the Egyptians, ‘rowing' is ‘beating' the water.

(128)XO-¿A-¿E-NA, ("squirt-(perfective)=squirted-like-thing=hide(/skin-for-liquid-transport-and-dispensing)"); E: in Xn.t {for **Xjjn.t}, ‘hide, skin'; A: **sh-¿-y-n; (IE: *g^wei-no- , ‘*wine-skin', listed under *g^we/e:i- ), ‘skin(/hide), pelt'; RATIONALE: This terminology is unusual; it designates an object by its function when usually it is the object that names the function.

(129)XE-¿A-¿E-NA, ("bristle-(perfective)-bristled-like-thing=hair"); E: in Sn.w {for **Sjjn.w}, ‘hair'; A: in mash¿ûn-un {sh-¿-(y-)-n}, ‘disordered (hair)' [basis is shû¿â {sh-¿-y not sh-¿-w(!)}], ‘scattered (hair)'; (IE: *g^wei-no-{for ***g^weH₂eyeno- , ‘hair, fur', listed under *g^we/e:i-); *g_whei6- {**g_weH₂eyen-}, ‘vein, sinew, ribbon, string'); RATIONALE: With the Egyptian preference for shaving the head, the normal term for ‘hair' seems to have designated it as ‘disordered.

(130)XO-¿A-N[H]A, ("bow-over-(perfective)=bowed-over-(ingressive)=start-to-bow-over=distort"); E: in Xnn {for **Xjn}, ‘disturb, interfere with, confound, inflamed, sick'; A: in sha¿ala, ‘to kindle, stir (war)'; (IE: **g^hwel- {for **g^weH₂el-}, ‘double up (with pain), writhe, divert from a straight direction (also mentally and socially), deceive'); RATIONALE: The idea is bending things from the normal position.

(131)P[?]A-¿E-T[?]O-HA, ("piece-like=portion-of-hide=pelt+lump-(stative)=lumped-together-pelts=canopy/tent"); E: pt {for **pjtj}, ‘sky (the determinative of which, Gardiner : 1970 N1, ‘sky', clearly portrays a ‘tent-canopy')'; A: **baiT-un but attested as bait-un, ‘house'; (IE: *baita: {for **beyedh- from **beyedeH₂-, ‘goatskin, *tent {cf. Gr baíte:, ‘tent'; several reflexes of baita: are more naturally derived from **beyedh-, e.g. Gothic paida, ‘undergarment'); RATIONALE: This is probably one of the oldest words for ‘shelter' in the form of a tent made of animal skins.

(132)P[H]FO-F[H]A-¿A, ("puff-(imperfective)-(perfective)=exuding(-odor)=what-was-exuded=odor"); E: in bw (for **b-w-j}, ‘detest (perceive what is detestable; the determinatives used for this word are ‘two mushrooms[?]' and a ‘(rotting[?])fish')'; A: tafauwa¿a {f-w-¿}, ‘to vomit (sick person)'; (IE: *pew6- {for **pheweH₂-}, ‘putrefy, stink', listed under *2. pu/u:-); RATIONALE: What is intended is an odor that provokes disgust ("it stinks = it is detested").

(133)HA-F[H]A-N[H]A, ("exhale-(imperfective)-exhaling-(ingressive)=start-to-exhale=give-scent=general-aspect"); E: in jwn, ‘complection, color, disposition, characteristic'; A: hâla-tun {h-w-l}, ‘halo'; tahauwala {h-w-l}, ‘to assume the appearance of a wild beast for rendering (a she-camel) submissive'; (IE: *1. wel- {for **H₂ewel-}, ‘appearance'); RATIONALE: The terminology for the characteristic scent of a thing has been transferred to its characteristic appearance.

(134)K[H]XA-R[H]A(-¿E), ("burn-color=redden-like=desire-strongly"); E: in H3(j), ‘would that . . . (particle)'; A: ghariya, ‘to desire earnestly'; (IE: **ka:ri- {for **kherey-}, ‘to like, desire'),listed under ka:- ; **keri- {for **kherey-}, ‘burn up, glow, heat', listed under *3. ker(6)-); RATIONALE: This probably has more to do with ‘lust' than with plain ‘avarice'.

(135)K[H]XA-N[H]A(-¿E), ("sting-(ingressive)=start-to-stick-into"); E: in Hnjj.t, ‘spear (‘sticker')'; A: ghalla, ‘to insert one thing into another'; (IE: *2. kel- {for **khel(ey)-}, ‘stick into, puncture'); RATIONALE: The bee's sting is the natural analogy for the puncture of a javelin.

(136)K[H]XO-RE, ("mollusk-apply=make-a-slit-in"); E: in x3j, ‘measure [mark off by means of small lines/slits]'; in x3jj.t, ‘slaughter, massacre'; A: gharrara {gh-r}, ‘to cut, come forth (foreteeth)'; gharr-un, ‘cleft in the earth'; (IE: *2. ker- {for **kher-}, ‘cut'); *4. (s)ker-, ‘cut'); RATIONALE: Early cutting was done with the sharp edge of the shell of a mollusk.

(137)K[H]XO-M[H]O, ("close-overall=completely-closed"); E: in xm, ‘know not, be ignorant of (closed off from knowledge[?])'; xm, ‘shrine (‘closed[?])']; A: ghamma, ‘to cover, conceal'; ?aghama {gh-m}, ‘be overcast'; (IE: *3. k^em- {for **khem-}, ‘cover, wrap'); RATIONALE: The mollusk was a living example of ‘closing' with its shell.

(138)K[H]XE-MO(-¿E), ("deer-flesh-like=flayed-deer-skin=ritual-shirt"); E: in Hm {for **Hmj}, ‘majesty [the title of the king as an embodiment of the god]'; A: ghâmm-un {gh-m}, ‘covering'; ?aghmî {gh-m-y not gh-m-w[!]}, ‘hidden'; (IE: *k^emi- {for **k^hemey-}, ‘cover, wrap'), listed under *3. k^em-; RATIONALE: When in the sacred deer-skin, the king is the embodiment of the god; and he is hidden as an ordinary person.

(139)K[H]XA-Q[H]A-RO, ("burn-hump=swollen-stomach=hunger-very=very-hungry"); E: in Hqr, ‘hungry'; A: **gh-q-l; (IE: *kenk-ro- {for **khenk-ro-}, ‘hungry', listed under *2. kenk-); RATIONALE: Again, the concrete image conveys the accompanying emotion.

(140)HHE-R[H]A, ("smoke-color=red/orange"); E: **j3 in j3b.t, ‘East [‘place of redness'; see 140b below]'; A: Harra, ‘to be hot, feverish[‘reddish']'; (IE: *er-- {for **H₄er-}, ‘dark red, brownish hues', listed under *e/e:reb(h)-); RATIONALE: It looks like early language had a very full set of color terms.

(140a)HHE-R[H]A-P[?]FA, ("red/orange-be-prominent=(javelin-)point(fire-hardened)"); E: in **j3b, ‘**spear-head [the hieroglyph used to write j3b is characterized in Gardiner : 1970 as R15 ‘spear decked out as a standard']'; A: Harba-tun {H-r-b}, ‘spear-head'; (IE: *er-- {for **H₄er-}, ‘dark red, brownish hues', listed under *e/e:reb(h)-; **erebh- (**H₄erebh-), ‘pointed tool', listed under ereb-, ‘bore, hollow out, pointed tool for such work'); RATIONALE: Putting a durable point on a wooden object requires hardening by fire.


(140b)HHE-R[H]A-P[?]FO, ("red/orange-(formant of places)=east"); E: in j3b.t, ‘East'; A: **H-r-b; (IE: *er-- {for **H₄er-}, ‘dark red, brownish hues', listed under *e/e:reb(h)-; basis in **er- {**H₄er-}, ‘**east', in Lith ry/-tas, ‘morning', listed incorrectly under *3. er- {HHE-R([H])E, "move-up-from-come(apply)"}, ‘rise/raise'; Latin orie:ns, ‘the rising sun', listed in Pokorny under *3. er-, probably should be properly assigned to an unacknowledged root **or- {**H₃er-}, ‘sunlight', from HHO-RO, "sun-raise", also seen in E hrw, ‘day, daytime'; and A Halla, ‘become (time)' ); RATIONALE: The sun, of course, was the primary division of time. To equate it with a ‘fire', seems very natural because of the common properties of light and heat.


(140c)HHE-R[H]A-T[H]E, ("red/orange-shine=turned-earth"); E: j3d, ‘ground'; A: Harth-un, ‘land prepared for sowing'; (IE: *er-t- {for **H₄eret-}, ‘earth', listed under *4. er-); RATIONALE: Newly turned earth has a reddish color that will disappear when it has dried.

(141)HHO-RO-FA, ("sun-rise-(imperfective)=sunny"); E: hr(w), ‘pleasing'; A: Halî {H-l-w}, ‘agreeable, pleasing'; (IE: **olew-- {for **H₃elew-}, ‘**yellow, sunny', an unacknowledged root included under *albho-, ‘white'); RATIONALE: There is hardly a human heart that a sunny day does not cheer.

(142)?E-¿E-P[?]FE, ("tooth-like=tusk-(animal formant)=elephant"); E: 3b(w) (for **jjb(w); this word is written with Gardiner : 1970 U23, ‘hair-pin', which, is ?E-¿E-P[?]FA, "tooth-like=pointed-be-prominent=(hair-)pin", seen in IE **eibh- in AS afor, ‘sharp' [**eibh-ro-], listed incorrectly under *4. ai-, ‘burn'), ‘elephant'; the strongest evidence for a corrected reading of this sign is that the city of Elephantine, written *3bw {**jjbw}, was rendered by the Greeks as Ie:b , an attempt to reproduce /**je:v/ from /**jaiv/; if the initial consonant had been 3, we should not have expected initial I; and possibly the correspondence of E *3b.t {for **jjb.t}, ‘family, with IE *aibh- {**H₂eyebh-}, ‘family', and A ¿aibatun (dialectal variant for unattested **?aibatun; the rest of the derivatives of ¿-y-b are concerned with ‘defects' [¿A-¿E-P[?]FA, "eye-like-be prominent=conspicuous=non-normal=defective", possibly seen in OHG eibar, ‘crude'), ‘family' (?A-¿E-P[?]FO, "family-like-(place formant)=home=family"; A: **?-y-b; (IE: **eibh-- {H₂eyebh-}in OInd íbha-H, ‘elephant'); RATIONALE: This root was also applied to ‘ivory' in Egyptian. There is also E 3bjj {for **jjbjj[?]}, ‘panther', which is possibly HA-¿E-P[?]FO-¿E-¿E, "air-like=fast-leg-like=fast-like=swift(-one)", the initial element (without y) is perhaps seen in IE *abh-, ‘swift'.

(143)P[?]FO-¿E-T[?]SO, ("trunk-like=tree-hold(er)=nest"); E: b' {for **bj'}, ‘container for oil'; A: bâDa {b-y-D}, ‘lay eggs [‘use a nest']'; (IE: *bhidh- {**bheyedh-}, ‘pot, pail, barrel, *woven basket'); RATIONALE: A animal nest served as a base term for cup-shaped containers made of more permanent and non-porous material.

(144)SE-N[H]A, ("draw-out-(ingressive)=start-to-remove=part"); E: zn(j), ‘pass, pass by, surpass, transgress'; A: zalla, ‘slip, pass away'; (IE: *sel-, ‘creep, crawl'); RATIONALE: The main nuance seems to be slow and apparently laborious movement.

(145)N[H]O-HA-¿E-NA, ("slack-(stative)-like=soft-one=soft(-thing)"); E: **njjn; A: lâna {l-y-n for **l-h-y-n}, ‘to be soft, tender, smooth, mild, kind, relaxed'; (IE: *leino-, ‘limp', listed under *2. lei-, ‘shrink, decrease, disappear, thin, spare'; *le:-no- {for **leH₂eyen-[?]}, ‘weak, soft', listed under *3. le:(i)-, ‘let up, ease, lessen'); RATIONALE: Apparently, in forming a triliteral root, Arabic has deleted the medial h. It is possible that the base of this word, N[H]O-HA(-¿E), meaning ‘relax, make comfortable, is seen in the E greeting njj-njj, and IE *ala:(la), ‘hello', in Greek alalá.

(146)S[H]E-N[H]A, ("separate-(ingressive)=start-to-separate=separate"); E: zn, ‘open (‘extract a stopper'[?]), reveal'; A: salla, ‘draw (a sword), extract (gently), steal'; (IE: *3. sel-, ‘take, seize, *sell'); RATIONALE: The Arabic forms allow us to differentiate the very similar concepts represented by S[H]E and SE

(146a)S[H]E-N[H]A-¿A, ("separate-(ingressive)=start-to-separate=separate"); E: znj, ‘cut off, sever'; A: sala¿a, ‘cleave, split'; (IE: *3. sel- {for **seleH₂-}, ‘take, seize, *sell'); RATIONALE: IE seems to have narrowed the meaning to approximately ‘cut off for transport'.


(146b)S[H]E-N[H]A-F[H]A-K[H]XO, ("separate-(ingressive)=start-to-separate-(imperfective)-separating-cut=slough"); E: znxx {**znwx with partial reduplication}, ‘rejuvenate one's self'; A: salagha, ‘shed teeth'; ?aslagh-un, ‘leper'; from which, irregularly developed salakha, ‘to cast its slough (snake), excoriate, to become green again'; (IE: **sluk(h)-, irregularly in Germanic *slug-, listed under IE *(s)leug^-, ‘glide' slip along, *slough'; the relationships among several involved roots are particularly complicated in all the derived languages.

(147)N[H]E-¿E-S[H]A, ("slide-like-(stative formant)=slipperiness"); E: ns {for **njz, ‘**slippery one'}, ‘tongue'; A: laiyasa, ‘to plaster (dialectal)'; (IE: *loisa:, ‘clay', listed under *3. lei-, ‘slimey, slippery'); RATIONALE: Arabic has expanded this root to lisân-un {from **l-y-s-n}, ‘tongue'.

(148)NE-HHA-SO, ("sticky-(perfective)=(what-is-)stuck-together-pull=pull-apart=be-undisciplined"); E: **njs; A: laHaza, ‘to be avaricious'; (IE: *las- {**leH₂es-}, ‘greedy, lascivious, willful, exuberant'); RATIONALE: Arabic laHHa, ‘stick together', suggests the correctness of this analysis.

(149)N[H]A-K[?]XO-?A, ("hide-hole=refuge"); E: nx(j), ‘protect (one example of this word has a ‘prone man' and the ‘place determinative' as determinatives)'; A: laja?a, ‘take refuge with'; laja?-un, ‘shelter, refuge, protection'; (IE: *logho-s, ‘camp', listed under *legh- {**legheH₂-}, ‘lay down, lie'); RATIONALE: The IE verbal idea is an extension from ‘camp' = ‘where one lies down'.