Heart Failure: Management of Patients With Left-Ventricular Systolic Dysfunction Highlights of Patient ManagementInitial EvaluationAll patients who complain of paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, orthopnea, or new-onset dyspnea on exertion should undergo evaluation for heart failure unless history and physical examination clearly indicate a noncardiac cause for their symptoms, such as pulmonary disease. Although the physical examination can provide important information about the etiology of patients' symptoms and about appropriate initial treatment, physical signs are not highly sensitive for detecting heart failure. Therefore, patients with symptoms highly suggestive of heart failure should undergo echocardiography or radionuclide ventriculography to measure left-ventricular ejection fraction (EF) (see below) even if physical signs of heart failure are absent. Patients with less specific symptoms (i.e., fatigue, lower extremity edema) should only undergo such testing if there are physical or radiographic signs of heart failure. Conversely, many physical findings of heart failure are not highly specific. Elevated jugular venous pressure and a third heart sound are the most specific findings and are virtually diagnostic in patients with compatible symptoms. Pulmonary rales or peripheral edema are relatively nonspecific findings, however. The presence of these signs does not require measurement of left-ventricular ejection fraction if other symptoms, signs, and radiographic findings of heart failure (e.g., cardiomegaly and pulmonary vascular congestion) are absent or if they can be attributed to other causes. Table 1 summarizes the tests that should be performed to evaluate patients with new-onset signs or symptoms of heart failure for underlying causes. A variety of conditions can mimic or provoke heart failure, including pulmonary disease, myocardial infarction (MI), arrhythmias, anemia, renal failure, nephrotic syndrome, and thyroid disease. These conditions should be considered in every patient with suspected new-onset heart failure. This guideline does not address the management of patients with these conditions. Hospital ManagementThe presence or suspicion of heart failure and any of the following findings usually indicate a need for hospitalization:
Patients with heart failure should be discharged from the hospital only when:
Clinical Volume OverloadDuring initial evaluation, the clinician should determine if the patient manifests symptoms or signs of volume overload. Symptoms and signs of volume overload include orthopnea, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, dyspnea on exertion, pulmonary rales, a third heart sound, jugular venous distension, hepatic engorgement, ascites, peripheral edema, and pulmonary vascular congestion or pulmonary edema on chest x-ray.Patients suspected of heart failure with signs of significant volume overload should be started immediately on a diuretic. Patients with mild volume overload can be managed adequately on thiazide diuretics, while those with more severe volume overload should be started on a loop diuretic. Patients with severe volume overload may require intravenous loop diuretics and/or hospitalization. See "Initial Pharmacological Management" (Algorithm Node 9) for a discussion of agents and dosing. Left-Ventricular FunctionMeasurement of left-ventricular performance is a critical step in the evaluation and management of almost all patients with suspected or clinically
apparent heart failure. The combined use of history, physical examination, chest radiography, and electrocardiography does not appear to be reliable in
determining whether a patient's symptoms and physical findings are due to dilated cardiomyopathy, left-ventricular diastolic dysfunction, valvular heart
disease, or a noncardiac etiology. Therefore, echocardiography or radionuclide ventriculography can substantially improve diagnostic accuracy. General CounselingPatients with heart failure should be informed about their diagnoses including the prognosis, symptoms of worsening heart failure, and what to do if
these symptoms occur. Information should also be provided concerning the benefits of regular activity, dietary restrictions, necessary medications, and the
importance of compliance with recommendations. It is vital that patients understand their disease and be involved in developing the plan for their care. In
addition, family members and other responsible caregivers should be included in counseling and decision making sessions. Initial Pharmacological ManagementTable 4 summarizes the usual dosing and potential adverse effects of the pharmacological agents commonly used to treat
patients with heart failure. Although initiation of diuretics is important in these patients, it is also important to avoid overdiuresis before starting ACE inhibitors. Volume depletion may lead to hypotension or renal insufficiency when ACE inhibitors are started or when the doses of these agents are increased to full therapeutic levels. After the ACE inhibitor is increased to full therapeutic levels, additional diuretic therapy may be necessary to optimize the patient's status. ACE Inhibitors. Because of their beneficial effects on mortality risk and functional status, ACE inhibitors should be prescribed for all patients with left-ventricular systolic dysfunction unless specific contraindications exist (i.e., history of intolerance or adverse reactions to these agents, serum potassium >5.5, or symptomatic hypotension). Patients with contraindications to ACE inhibitors or who cannot tolerate them should be placed on isosorbide dinitrate/hydralazine. ACE inhibitors may be considered as sole therapy in patients who present with fatigue or mild dyspnea on exertion and who do not have any signs or symptoms of volume overload. Diuretics should be added if symptoms persist in these patients despite ACE inhibitors or if volume overload develops at a later time. Digoxin. Digoxin increases the force of ventricular contraction in patients with left-ventricular systolic dysfunction. Although physical functioning and
symptoms may be improved with digoxin, its effect on mortality is not known. Digoxin should be initiated along with ACE inhibitors and diuretics in patients
with severe heart failure. Patients with mild-to-moderate heart failure will often become asymptomatic on optimal doses of ACE inhibitors and diuretics;
these patients do not require digoxin. Digoxin should be added to the therapeutic regimen of those patients whose symptoms persist despite optimal doses of
ACE inhibitors and diuretics. Digoxin dosing and precautions are discussed in the Clinical Practice Guideline. RevascularizationCoronary artery disease is currently the most common cause of heart failure in the United States, and some patients may benefit from revascularization. In particular, patients with viable myocardium subserved by substantially stenotic vessels may reasonably be expected to obtain longevity benefits and, perhaps, improved quality of life if the stenosis is successfully relieved. On the other hand, revascularization entails significant morbidity and mortality. Before studies are initiated to determine if patients are candidates for revascularization (i.e., have viable myocardium subserved by stenotic arteries), it is important to determine first if any conditions exist that may preclude intervention or that could raise the risk of revascularization above any potential benefit. These may include:
Patients without contraindication to revascularization should be advised of the possibility of revascularization, including its potential benefits and harms. Three parameters are important:
Counseling should be based on patients' particular characteristics, particularly on an assessment of patients' risk factors for coronary artery disease. Patients can be classified into three major subgroups:
No Angina and No MI.The likelihood of coronary disease in heart failure patients without angina or history of myocardial infarction varies depending on patient risk factors (e.g., age, sex, smoking history, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, family history of premature coronary artery disease, and diabetes). Patients should be counseled concerning the expected benefits and risks of evaluation for ischemia, including the fact that there is no evidence from controlled trials to show that revascularization benefits heart failure patients in the absence of angina. It is unclear whether patients without a history of MI or significant angina should be routinely evaluated for ischemia. The decision about whether to perform physiological tests for ischemia or coronary angiography should be based on a consideration of patients' risk factors for coronary artery disease and the likelihood of alternative etiologies (e.g., alcoholic cardiomyopathy). No Angina and History of MI.Available evidence suggests that as many as half of patients who suffer a myocardial infarction have clinically important myocardial ischemia in areas
supplied by other coronary arteries. There are no data, however, to show that revascularization of these areas is beneficial, in terms of increased life
expectancy or enhanced quality of life, in the absence of angina. Nevertheless, patients with large areas of ischemia may possibly benefit from
revascularization. Angina.The potential benefit of revascularization is clearest and probably greatest in individuals with severe or limiting angina or angina-equivalent (e.g.,
recurrent acute episodes of pulmonary edema despite appropriate medical management). Available evidence suggests that about 75 percent of heart failure
patients with significant concomitant angina have operable disease. Although the three randomized trials of coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery
excluded patients with heart failure or severe left-ventricular dysfunction, several cohort studies and registries suggest that patients with angina and
impaired left-ventricular function have improved functional status and survival if they undergo bypass surgery. Counseling and Decision.Based on the results of physiological testing and/or cardiac catheterization, the physician should give the patient a refined estimate of the risks and benefits of revascularization. The patient can then decide if he or she desires revascularization. No data are available that address the question of how much ischemia should be present to justify the risk of revascularization for the chance of an improvement in survival. In general, patients with severely depressed ejection fractions (EF <20 PERCENT) should undergo revascularization only if large areas of ischemia are detected. patients with less severely depressed ejection fractions may be willing to risk surgery for more modest-sized ischemic areas. The lack of data in this area makes it difficult to justify revascularization for small ischemic areas, except when severe angina is present. Continue Medical Management.If (1) a patient is not a candidate for revascularization, (2) studies show insufficient evidence of reversible ischemia, or (3) surgery has been performed but the patient still has residual left-ventricular dysfunction, then the medical therapy started under "Initial Pharmacological Management" (Algorithm Node 9) should be continued. As stated previously, an assessment of compliance is recommended at each visit. Use of a home health nurse or visiting nurse may be helpful for this purpose. Revascularize.Coronary artery bypass grafting is the only revascularization procedure that has been shown to prolong life in patients with angina and left-ventricular dysfunction. The effect of coronary artery angioplasty on survival of heart failure patients has not been studied, nor are the risks of angioplasty in heart failure patients known at this time. The choice between CABG and angioplasty will depend on numerous considerations, including multiple technical factors (e.g., coronary anatomy), relative risk of the two procedures in individual patients, and patient preferences. A discussion of these factors lies beyond the scope of this Quick Reference Guide for Clinicians. Follow-upCareful history and physical examination should be the main guide to determining outcomes and directing therapy. A thorough history should include
questions regarding physical functioning, mental health, sleep disturbance, sexual function, cognitive function, and ability to perform usual work and
social activities. Family members or other caregivers can often contribute important additional information about the patient's status and compliance when asked similar questions. In some cases, it may be desirable to interview family members or other caregivers apart from the patient in order to validate the patient's report. If discrepancies do occur, additional measures need to be instituted for clarification. In addition to questions about symptoms and activities, providers should ask about other aspects of patients' health-related quality of life, including sleep, sexual function, mental health (or outlook on life), appetite, and social activities. A worsening in any of these parameters may indicate the need to adjust therapy. To ensure optimal care for heart failure, the provider must view the disease in the broad context of the patient's life and see how the patient is coping with the disease. Consultation with psychologists, dieticians, health educators, and clinical nurse specialists may be necessary to deal with specific problems such as depression, difficulties adhering to complicated dietary or medical regimens, or poor functional status. The Heart Failure Guideline Panel recommends against the use of other tests (e.g., echocardiography, exercise testing) for monitoring the response of heart failure patients to treatment. No data exist to suggest that the monitoring of these endpoints contributes information beyond that obtained by a careful history and physical examination. However, repeat testing may be useful in patients with a new heart murmur, a new myocardial infarction, or sudden deterioration despite compliance with medications. Repeat testing as part of the evaluation for transplantation may also be necessary. Additional Pharmacological ManagementIf patients remain symptomatic on a combination of a diuretic, an ACE inhibitor, and digoxin, they should be seen at least once by a cardiologist. Patients with persistent volume overload despite initial medical management may require more aggressive administration of the current diuretic (e.g., intravenous administration), more potent diuretics, or a combination of diuretics. Patients with persistent dyspnea after optimal doses of diuretics, ACE inhibitors, and digoxin should be given a trial of hydralazine and/or nitrates. The addition of a vasodilator to an ACE inhibitor may also relieve symptoms. Direct vasodilators may be particularly helpful in patients with hypertension or evidence of severe mitral regurgitation. Even patients with blood pressure in the usual normal range may benefit by reducing their blood pressure with direct vasodilators. Alternatively, if a patient primarily has symptoms of pulmonary congestion or has a low systolic blood pressure, nitrates are preferred over arterial vasodilators. There is some evidence that gradually incremental therapy with low dose beta blockers may produce long-term improvements in symptoms and in natural history in patients with heart failure. However, because beta blockers may also cause acute deterioration in patients with heart failure, this form of treatment should be considered experimental at this time. Heart TransplantationConsideration should be given to cardiac transplantation in patients with severe limitation and/or repeated hospitalization because of heart failure, despite aggressive medical therapy, and in whom revascularization is not likely to convey benefit. Patients with severe symptoms should be referred to a cardiologist to ensure that medical therapy is optimized prior to referral for possible transplantation. Practitioners should refer to existing documents concerning heart transplantation for further information on patient selection criteria. Patients with poor systolic function whose symptoms are controlled on optimal medical management need not be referred for transplantation. Where appropriate, patients with severe symptoms uncontrolled by optimal medical management who are unable to obtain a heart transplant should be informed of the availability of experimental treatment protocols for which they may be eligible (e.g., new drugs, mechanical assist devices). Prevention in Patients with Left-Ventricular Systolic DysfunctionAsymptomatic patients who are found to have moderately or severely reduced left-ventricular systolic function (ejection fraction <35-40 PERCENT) should be treated with an ACE inhibitor to reduce the chance of developing clinical heart failure. Probably the largest number of such patients will be those who have recently sustained a myocardial infarction. For this reason, the EF should be myocardial infarction. For this reason, the EF should be determined in most patients following a myocardial infarction unless they are at low risk for significant systolic dysfunction, i.e., unless they meet all of the following criteria:
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